The foundation principle of modern cosmology is the expansion of space.

This is true in Big Bang cosmology and it is true in DSSU cosmology. It is true regardless of how 'space' is defined (whether continuous; or quantized; or geometric; or aether-like).

But on this common foundation rest two radically different types of universes: The expanding universe and the non-expanding universe. Examples of the expanding type include the mytho-religious Big Bang model and the historical Steady State model. An example of the non-expanding type is a cellular universe known as the Dynamic Steady State Universe (the DSSU).

Let me explain the essential difference. In the expanding universe model space expands universally. While in the non-expanding universe space expands but regionally. In our cellular universe space expands within giant three-dimensional cells. Global expansion versus localized expansion ---that is the essential difference.

But there is more. Our cellular universe also has space contraction ---space contracts regionally. Space expansion is balanced by space contraction thereby establishing the very conditions that sustain the cosmic cellular structure of the Universe. The dynamic flow between the regions is, in some ways, analogous to thermal convection cells.

So, a quantitative balance of space-expansion and space-contraction means that the Universe is intrinsically (as opposed to phenomenologically) cellularly structured. Remarkably, but not unexpectedly, it also means that the Universe does not expand! ... Furthermore, it means we are dealing with a radically new (as of 2002) cosmology, one that directly challenges the establishment World View.

Let us focus on the cell structure. The obvious question is, is the universe really cellular?

Astronomers have for several decades recorded the bubble-like nature of the structure of the observable universe. They note that galaxies are distributed in sheets and filaments surrounding large empty voids. Galaxy concentrations are particularly great at the nodes between bubbles. They know the cell structure is real, even though it appears rather chaotic.

But a chaotic appearance is not unexpected. A popular on-line encyclopedia warns:

Now please re-read my opening quote.

"Nature presents us with phenomena which appear mostly as chaotic randomness" until, as the opening quote suggests, we select and idealize the significant underlying action. In this spirit, we idealize the regional space dynamics (the space-expansion and space-contraction). "Only then can they exhibit their true structure in full splendor."

The following composite image represents this idealization.

The Cell Mechanism: Space Expansion and Contraction

The motion in the animation above represents the bulk-flow of aether-space. Since space expansion is an exponential growth process the motion involves radial acceleration. The acceleration and outward increase in speed are, of course, greatly exaggerated (a consequence of scaling the size and time).

The comoving drift of a test particle starting near the center of an actual cosmic cell takes a very long time ---a mind boggling 300 billion years. The flow is caused by the physical expansion of aether-space. The rate of this growth is known. Astronomers have measured it to be in the range of 18 to 20 km per second per million lightyears of distance. In easily understood terms, it means one kilometer of space grows by about 6.2 centimeters every million Earth years of time. In terms of volume it means one CUBIC kilometer of space grows by about 186,000 cubic meters every million Earth years.

The radial flow is caused by the expansion occurring in the void region (and only in the void region). The void is surrounded by a dodecahedral-shaped 'shell' of galaxies. This "shell of galaxies" is, of course, what gives the Cosmic Cell its visible shape.^[2] The dodecahedral shape corresponds to the hexagonal representation used for the above 2-dimensional image. The flow proceeds into the interface region of adjoining cells and into the galaxy cluster regions ---the structural nodes of the structural 'shell'.

And there, in the interface, in the galaxy clusters, space expansion ceases. In fact, space undergoes contraction. The galaxy cluster regions are major dissipaters (contractors) of aether-space.

There is a very real harmony here. Space expansion is balanced by space contraction. Which means, as noted above, the cosmic cell does not grow bigger.

Yes, but what about the galaxy clusters? ... What prevents them from collapsing into the central dominant galaxy (the yellow 'elliptical' shown at the heart of each node)?

To answer this we need to consider another kind of flow.

The Cell Mechanism: Matter Flow

The above section deals with the flow that results from the balanced processes of space expansion and space contraction. This is the flow shown in the animation.

There is, however, another pair of balanced processes. There exists a harmony between primitive matter formation (from vacuum energy) occurring in the void region and the negation of a loosely balancing quantity of gravitating matter within the interface (between cosmic cells) and galaxy clusters. More specifically, the negation of matter takes place within the cores of massive superneutron stars.

This other aspect of the cosmic cell's equilibrium —the matter-formation and matter-negation— is described here only in brief outline. Considerably more detail may be found in other research papers on the CellularUniverse.org website.

In a nutshell, the other aspect of the cell's equilibrium is between (1) primitive matter formation (from the release of energy due to space expansion) occurring in the void, and (2), the negation of a loosely balancing quantity of gravitating matter within the cores of sufficiently massive superneutron stars. ( “Superneutron stars” are similar to, and may be thought of as, black-holes. But understand, they are not black-holes as singularities and not black-holes of infinite density.) Matter density has a limit. Exceed the limit and matter/mass/energy become unsustainable ---as in these special cores. In blunt terms the matter, flowing into these cores, vanishes from the universe. It then, literally, no long exists. The descriptive term for this process, the term used in DSSU theory, is suppression-annihilation. (Be assured there is no violation of the law governing energy conservation nor of the law governing entropy.) The two processes lead to a simple self-balancing mechanism. There is a continuous material flow entering the galaxy clusters (astronomers refer to the process as streaming) and a continuous destruction (suppression-annihilation) of material within the galaxy clusters.

Thus, when the matter formation-and-negation pair is combined with the space expansion-and-contraction pair then the cosmic cell becomes a complete, self-sustaining, self-balancing system.

In practical terms it means the void does not grow bigger and the surrounding galaxy clusters do not become smaller. The size of the cosmic cell, for the most part, is stable. An average diameter is about 300 million lightyears.

Notice how Nature hides its true nature.

The Universe's cellularity is 'hidden' in the tangle of strands and clumps of galaxy clusters and the even greater tangle of interwoven superclusters of galaxies. Lost in the cosmic web. Expansion and contraction almost unrecognizable.

While large-scale structure is hidden in the apparent "chaotic randomness" the matter formation and annihilation processes are hidden by something else entirely. Matter formation is hidden in the unimaginable smallness-of-scale of quantum space. Lost to all our senses. And matter suppression-annihilation is hidden in the ultimate density of the cores of active superneutron stars. Lost in the blackness.

Continuous Beginning, Continuous Ending

Contrary to conventional cosmology, our Universe did not have a beginning and it will not have an ending. However, everything in and of the universe has a beginning and an ending. But what is most amazing is that the universe embodies continuous 'beginning' and continuous 'ending'. The dynamic cosmic cell has no starting and stopping mechanism. So it runs perpetually. In this way the animation, above, also captures the feature of continuous beginning and continuous ending.

We may think of this continuous beginning as primitive matter being formed from the aether ---from vacuum energy in conventional terminology and theory. Conceptualizing continuous ending is easy. It takes place in the cores of active superneutron stars. The sink holes of the universe (and conventionally called black holes).

The full-term process from beginning to ending can be expressed in the following radically simplified sequence: Consider a newly formed sub-sub-atomic particle ---a freshly precipitated precursor particle--- somewhere, anywhere, in the universe. Regardless of the quantity and quality and time duration of processes in which it partakes, its ultimate destination is a suppression-annihilation core of a black hole. This event is literally the end of the original particle ---or whatever it has evolved into. It is an 'ending' event. A tiny entity of the universe goes out of existence.

Should the 'particle' somehow, by some great fortune, miss all the black holes stalking the countless conventional galaxies (especially the massive ones at the nuclei of galaxies) then its ultimate ending will occur at the core of a nodal supergalaxy ---known to astronomers as cluster-dominating "Cd" galaxies. Representations of these supergiants are located at the six nodes of the idealized cosmic cell, above. And I repeat, whatever flows into the core is fated for the suppression-annihilation process and ceases to exist.

Before moving on to the conclusion, is there anything that has been overlooked? Any dynamic force or effect? ...

Of course! Gravity. ... And what about the anti-gravity effect ---the enigmatically termed cosmological constant made famous by Einstein?

Yes, yes. I should have clarified this earlier. I confess, I am so used to thinking of these two effects in the terms of their true nature ---in terms of their true splendor--- that I forgot to link them to the common terminology.

Gravity is simply the effect produced by the contraction of space (the inhomogeneous contraction of aether-space ). As for the cosmological constant, it is the effect produced by the expansion of space (the exponential expansion of aether-space).

(But unless this is your first visit to the Cellular Universe website then you would have known this anyway.)

Conclusion

When two fundamental process-pairs are combined ...

When the space expansion-and-contraction pair is combined with the matter formation-and-negation pair ...

Then the cosmic cell becomes a complete, self-sustaining, self-balancing system.

And we say that the unit-universe of the Dynamic Steady State Universe is a perpetual dynamic system. Always has been, always will be.

One final question. A question I asked myself some months after uncovering the 4-process system in the year 2001: If the system involves perpetual motion, does it necessarily violate the fundamental laws of Nature? Does it violate the dictum most people are familiar with ---the one that asserts that there is no such thing as a perpetual motion machine?

To fully appreciate the answer there are three things to consider.

(1) It turns out that there are three kinds of perpetual motion machines or systems: The first kind violates the principle of conservation of energy; the second kind violates the 2nd law of thermodynamics (the entropy law); the third kind, however, violates NO known laws.^[3] It is entirely possible to have a perpetual motion system without violating known laws. Thus we could, if we wanted, say that, yes, the DSSU is a perpetual motion ‘system’; however, being of the ‘third kind’ no physical laws are violated. Aether-space is the component that moves forever —a perpetual flow into existence and out of existence.

(2) Astrophysicists concede that one law in particular, the conservation of energy law, does not apply to the universe itself. In the words of Edward Harrison, “The conclusion, whether we like it or not, is obvious: Energy in the universe is not conserved.” ^[4]

3) And finally, there is the checkmate argument. There is an airtight philosophical reason why this must be so ---why there must be a perpetual process. See: The Primary Process and Section 2 in Theoretical Foundation and Pillars of the Dynamic Steady State Universe.

The considered answer ...