ESTIMA/DEPTHS

TION – HEIGHTSESTIMATION – HEIGHT AND DISTANCE

ESTIMATION – DISTANCE AND HEIGHT

ESTIMATION – DISTANCE AND HEIGHT

FIRST AID

FRACTURE: ARM AND COLLARBONE

Open and Closed Fractures and How to Treat Them

There are two classifications of fractures, closed fractures and open fractures. Closed fractures include any fracture where the bone does not penetrate the skin (the skin stays closed). In such instances, proper treatment includes immobilizing the fracture and seeking medical help.

Open fractures occur when a bone or bone fragment breaks through the skin or the skin and bone are broken in a traumatic, crushing injury. Proper treatment for open fractures must also include concern for possible infection.

Recognizing Fractures:

An open fracture will typically be self evident due to the exposed bone. The following clues suggest you are dealing with a probable closed fracture:

• 1. The victim felt a bone break or heard a “snap”.

  2. The victim feels a grating sensation when he/she moves a limb. (This condition is known as crepitus.)

  3. One limb appears to be a different length, shape or size than the other, or is improperly angulated.

  4. Reddening of the skin around a fracture may appear shortly after the fall.

  5. The patient may not be able to move a limb or part of a limb (e.g., the arm, but not the fingers), or to do so produces intense pain.

  6. Loss of a pulse at the end of the extremity.

  7. Loss of sensation at the end of the extremity.

  8. Numbness or tingling sensations.

  9. Involuntary muscle spasms.

  10. Other unusual pain, such as intense pain in the rib cage when a victim takes a deep breath or coughs.

If you discover any of these symptoms and cannot attribute them to any other obvious cause, assume them to be a fracture.

Initial Care for Fractures

In treating fractures, an unhurried and careful approach is best. Few fractures are life threatening unless mishandled. Check the patient for any more serious injuries. Make sure someone is going for help, or call 911. Ensure your patient is breathing and that excessive bleeding is controlled and that all open wounds are protected as best you can from contamination. After these elements are satisfied you can deal with stabilization of the fracture.

If you can, carefully cut away all clothing near the fracture site. You need to make sure the fracture hasn’t broken the skin and you may be able to use the cut away material to aid in splinting. If you find an open fracture, protect the wound from contamination as you would any other.

No matter how soon you expect to get medical help, you should immobilize all fractures to prevent additional injuries due to accidental movement or muscle spasms. Immobilization can be achieved many ways; the key points being not to worsen the situation while immobilizing and making sure to also immobilize the joints above and below any limb fracture.

DO NOT try to straighten angulations of a bent wrist, ankle or shoulder or attempt to straighten any dislocated joint!

When splinting using sticks or other “found” objects, try to make padding between the injured limb and splint using a jacket, shirt filled with grass, anything which can be reasonably secured and can help fill in the gaps between the limb and the splint material. Don’t get carried away with this concept, but if you can handily make something up without delaying the splinting process, it will be more comfortable to the patient.

It is not always possible to tell with the naked eye if a bone has been fractured. In case of doubt, it is best to assume the victim has received a fracture and treat it accordingly.

First Aid to Arm, and Collarbone Fractures

Collarbone Fractures:

Symptoms and Signs:

Treatment:

• 1. Gently place the limb on the injured side across the casualty’s chest with the fingertips almost resting on the opposite shoulder.

  2. Place padding between the limb and chest on the affected side.

  3. Support the limb and padding in an elevation sling.

  4. For additional support, secure the limb to the chest by applying aboard bandage over the sling, tie the knot in front on the uninjured side.

  5. Remove to hospital.

Arm Fractures:

Fractures can occur anywhere along the length of the upper-arm bone or the two forearm bones, and may involve the elbow and upper arm bone.

Treatment:

• 1. Place a pad in the person’s armpit.

  2. Use a padded splint.

  3. Support the lower arm with a narrow pad around the neck and wrist.

  4. Use a wide bandage to bind the upper arm to the chest.

JAW FRACTURE

  JAW FRACTURE

The term “jaw fracture” usually refers to fracture of the lower jaw (mandible). A fractured jaw causes pain and usually changes the way the teeth fit together. Often, the mouth cannot be opened wide, or it shifts to one side when opening or closing.

Fractures of the upper jaw (maxilla) are usually considered facial fractures. These may cause double vision (because the muscles of the eye attach nearby), numbness in the skin below the eye (because of injuries to nerves), or an irregularity in the cheekbone that can be felt when running a finger along it.

Any injury forceful enough to fracture the jaw may also injure the spine in the neck or cause a concussion or bleeding within the skull. Jaw fractures cause swelling, which rarely becomes severe enough to block the airway. Sometimes a fracture extends through a tooth or its socket (called an open fracture), creating an opening into the mouth that can allow oral bacteria to infect the jaw bone.

If people suspect their jaw is fractured, they should hold the jaw still with the teeth together. Emergency personnel may wrap a bandage under the jaw and over the top of the head several times (Barton’s bandage). When wrapping the bandage, people must be careful not to cut off breathing.

Symptoms of Jaw Fracture

Symptoms include Pain in the face or jaw, located in front of the ear on the affected side(s), worse with movement, inability to close your mouth, drooling because of inability to close the mouth. difficulty speaking, jaw may protrude forward, your teeth may not align normally, your ite feels “off” or crooked

Causes of Jaw Fracture

The most common cause of broken or dislocated jaw is accident or trauma involving a blow to the face. This may be the result of a motor vehicle accident, industrial accident, recreational/sports injury, or other accident. It may also result from assault. The goal of treatment is proper alignment of the jaw bone so the upper and lower teeth come together normally. Surgery is often required for moderate to severe fractures to align and immobilize the bone so it can heal.

Treatment of Jaw Fracture

Treatment for conservative Jaw Fracture

This means that patients whose fracture does not affect mastication must rest the areas of the broken bone. This usually includes unfitness for work, the duration of which will be determined by the treating doctor.

In fractures affecting the jaws, immobilisation of the jaws is necessary for conservative treatment, and this can be ensured by retaining screws or encirclement of the teeth with strong wire.

Operative therapy

If operative treatment is necessary, this involves an operation that is usually performed under general anaesthesia. The broken fragments of bone are exposed at the operation and the fractured parts of the bone are joined together firmly in their original position using plates and screws. Various systems are available depending on the fracture site and fracture type: titanium plate systems are used in fractures subject to much stress, especially in the mandible, while absorbable plate systems (dissolving plates) can be used in fractures in less stressed areas, especially in the maxilla and zygomatic area and in the frontal region. The treating doctor decides on the procedure and treatment plan in each case.

The fundamental goals of treatment are restoration of the original form and function, facial shape and mastication. This eliminates pain caused by the fracture and diminishes the risk of infection with its possible sequelae (chronic bone inflammation).

Treatment of Jaw Fracture

Treatment for conservative Jaw Fracture

This means that patients whose fracture does not affect mastication must rest the areas of the broken bone. This usually includes unfitness for work, the duration of which will be determined by the treating doctor.

In fractures affecting the jaws, immobilisation of the jaws is necessary for conservative treatment, and this can be ensured by retaining screws or encirclement of the teeth with strong wire.

Operative therapy

If operative treatment is necessary, this involves an operation that is usually performed under general anaesthesia. The broken fragments of bone are exposed at the operation and the fractured parts of the bone are joined together firmly in their original position using plates and screws. Various systems are available depending on the fracture site and fracture type: titanium plate systems are used in fractures subject to much stress, especially in the mandible, while absorbable plate systems (dissolving plates) can be used in fractures in less stressed areas, especially in the maxilla and zygomatic area and in the frontal region. The treating doctor decides on the procedure and treatment plan in each case.

The fundamental goals of treatment are restoration of the original form and function, facial shape and mastication. This eliminates pain caused by the fracture and diminishes the risk of infection with its possible sequelae (chronic bone inflammation).

COLLARBONE FRACTURE

COLLARBONE FRACTURE – TREATMENT

FRACTURE

FRACTURE

A fracture is a broken bone. It requires medical attention. If the broken bone is the result of major trauma or injury, call  your local emergency number. Also call for emergency help if:

• • The person is unresponsive, isn’t breathing or isn’t moving. Begin cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) if there’s no respiration or heartbeat.

  • There is heavy bleeding.

  • Even gentle pressure or movement causes pain.

  • The limb or joint appears deformed.

  • The bone has pierced the skin.

  • The extremity of the injured arm or leg, such as a toe or finger, is numb or bluish at the tip.

  • You suspect a bone is broken in the neck, head or back.

  • You suspect a bone is broken in the hip, pelvis or upper leg (for example, the leg and foot turn outward abnormally).

Don’t move the person except if necessary to avoid further injury. Take these actions immediately while waiting for medical help:

• • Stop any bleeding. Apply pressure to the wound with a sterile bandage, a clean cloth or a clean piece of clothing.

  • Immobilize the injured area. Don’t try to realign the bone or push a bone that’s sticking out back in. If you’ve been trained in how to splint and professional help isn’t readily available, apply a splint to the area above and below the fracture sites. Padding the splints can help reduce discomfort.

  • Apply ice packs to limit swelling and help relieve pain until emergency personnel arrive. Don’t apply ice directly to the skin — wrap the ice in a towel, piece of cloth or some other material.

  • Treat for shock. If the person feels faint or is breathing in short, rapid breaths, lay the person down with the head slightly lower than the trunk and, if possible, elevate the legs.

Fractures

A fracture is a complete or partial breakage of a bone. Fractures may be:

• • Simple, where the broken ends of the bone do not cut open the skin

  • Compound, where the broken end of the bone may be in contact with the external air

  • Complicated, where in addition to the fracture an important internal organ may also be injured. A complicated fracture may also be simple or compound.

Signs and Symptoms of a Fracture

• • Pain at or around the site of the fracture.

  • Tenderness (pain on gentle pressure) over the area. Do not press hard.

  • Swelling over the area with discoloration.

  • Loss of normal movements of the affected part.

  • Deformity of the limb may be caused. The limb may lose its normal shape and there may be apparent shortening of the limb.

  • If, as in the leg bone, the break is just under the skin, the irregular outline of the bone can be felt easily.

  • When one end of the broken bone moves against the other, a crackling sound may be heard. This is called crepitus (grating). This should never be elicited by the person giving First Aid.

  • Unnatural movements may be felt at the site of the fracture. This too should never be elicited by the First-Aid provider.

In addition the victim may himself say that he heard the snap of the bone. It is important to compare the injured limb with the normal limb while making an assessment.

Management  of Fractures

The aims of First Aid here are:

• • To prevent further damage

  • To reduce pain

  • To make the patient feel comfortable

  • To get medical aid as soon as possible

  • Fractures often occur along with other injuries. So the rescuer must assess for other injuries and decide which of them requires care on priority. Heavy bleeding is more urgent and requires higher priority care over a fracture.

  • If there is no danger to life then temporary attention to the fracture is often sufficient.

  • Handle the patient very gently. Avoid all unnecessary movement.

  • Treat for shock if present.

  • If the broken ends of the bones show out, do not wash the wound or apply antiseptics to the end of the bone.

  • Do not handle the fracture unnecessarily.

  • Never attempt to reduce the fracture or to bring the bones to the normal position.

  • Stabilise and support the injured part so that no movement is possible. This stops further injury and helps to control the bleeding.

  • Immobilise the fracture area and the joints on both sides of the fracture site (above and below) by using bandages or by using splints wherever available. It is essential that the rescuer be familiar with the use of bandages and splints.

A: Using Bandages

Usually it is enough to use the other (uninjured) limb or the body of the victim as the splint. The upper limb can be supported by the body, and the lower limb by the other limb provided that also is not fractured. Most fractures except those of the forearm can be immobilised in this manner:

• • Do not apply bandage over the area of the fracture.

  • The bandaging should be firm so that there is no movement of the fractured ends but should not be too tight as blood circulation to the affected area could be reduced. If there is further swelling of the injured area, the bandage may be too tight and therefore may need to be loosened.

  • Always place padding material between the ankles, knees and other hollows if they have to be tied together so that when the limbs are bound together they are comfortable and steady.

  • If the patient is lying down, the bandage should be passed through the natural hollows like the neck, the lower part of the trunk, knees, just above the ankles etc., so that the patient’s body is not jarred.

  • Always tie the knots on the sound side.

B: Using Splints

Splints are used only when necessary expertise is there.

• • A splint is a rigid piece of wood or plastic material or metal applied to a fractured limb to prevent movement of the broken bone.

  • Reasonably wide splints are better than narrow ones.

  • Splints should be long enough so that the joints above and below the fractured bones can be made immobile.

  • The splints should be well padded with cotton or cloth so as to fit snugly and softly on the injured limb.

  • Splints are best applied over the clothing.

  • In an emergency, splints can be improvised using a walking stick, an umbrella, a piece of wood, a book or even a firmly folded newspaper.

  • Use of splints becomes obligatory only when both legs or both thigh bones are broken.

Fractures involving the back (vertebral column) require special care. In such cases, the victim should not be allowed to get up. Further, movement must be avoided as much as possible and emergency medical help must be sought.

How to Perform Mouth to Mouth Resuscitation

Mouth to mouth resuscitation is a vital skill that can save a person’s life. It is a great skill to learn, but only those that know the steps should attempt it.

Instructions

Things You’ll Need:

• • Watch

  • Cloth

• 1. 1

Tap the person on the shoulder to see if he is conscious. Loudly ask, “Are you okay?”. Ask this several times while tapping them. If he doesn’t respond, begin mouth to mouth.

• 1. 2

Tilt the person’s head back by placing your hand on his forehead and lifting his chin with the first two fingers of your other hand.

• 1. 3

Look, listen, and feel for air coming out of the victim’s mouth by bending your own ear down to his mouth. Tilt your head towards the victims feet, so you can also look to see if his chest is rising and falling. Continue to tilt the head back with both hands as you look, listen and feel for air.

• 1. 4

See if there is an obstruction. If you do not feel any air, look for anything that may be obstructing the victim’s airway. Perform a sweep of the person’s mouth using your two fingers while tilting the head back to see if anything is caught in the air passageway.

• 1. 5

Take a deep breath, pinch the victim’s nose closed with the hand that is holding the forehead, seal your lips around the victim’s mouth and give them several deep breaths. Pause in between each one to inhale shortly.

• 1. 6

Look, listen and feel for breathing from your victim. Continue to give him mouth-to-mouth at steady, regular intervals, pausing only to breathe yourself. Always look to see if the chest is rising and falling, to ensure your breaths are getting through.

FIRST AID FOR ELECTRIC SHOCK

Electric Shock

Electric shock occurs when an electric current flows through the body. The human body is made up of 60% to 70% water. This makes it a good conductor of electricity. Burns, damage to internal organs, heart rhythm problems, and death can result from electric shock.

Signs & Symptoms

• • Shocking sensations. Numbness or tingling. A change in vision, speech, or in any sensation.

  • Burns or open wounds. These occur where the electricity enters and exits the body.

  • Muscle spasms or contractions.

  • Sudden immobility or fractures. A body part may looked deformed.

  • Interrupted breathing. Irregular heartbeats or chest pain.

  • Seizures.

  • Unconsciousness.

A small child who bites or sucks on an electric cord can have a facial injury or distinct burn around the rim of the mouth.

Electric Shock can cause tissue damage under the skin’s surface.

Causes

• • Touching a high-voltage (more than 1,000 volts) source, such as high-tension wires that fall during a storm. Touching someone who is still touching a live current. Touching a low-voltage (less than 1,000 volts) current source, such as an electric socket or worn cord.

  • Mixing water and electricity.

  • Being struck by lightning. A bolt of lightning carries as many as 30 million volts.

Treatment

Contact with electricity from a high-voltage wire or being struck by lightning needs emergency medical care. Contact with electricity from a low-voltage current needs emergency medical care if any signs or symptoms listed above are present. A person who does not have any symptoms should still see a doctor to check for possible internal injuries.

To Avoid Being Harmed by Lightning

• • Heed weather warnings.

  • Take shelter in a building, if you can.

  • Stay in your car (if it is not a convertible) rather than out in the open.

  • If you are caught outside, avoid tall trees, open water, metal objects, and high ground. Crawl into a low-lying place or curl up on the ground, head to knees with your head touching the ground.

First Aid For Electric Shock

Children, especially toddlers, love sticking their little fingers anywhere and everywhere, especially into plug points and sockets. The human body is a good conductor of electricity, and contact with a live power source can cause significant burns, or may interfere with the heart’s electrical system.

Everyone has received minor electric shocks sometime or the other, which are no cause for concern. But once in a while, a lose wire or a faulty household appliance can shock the life out of you – literally. Most of the

fatal electric shocks happen at home. 

Here’s what you can do if it happens in your home. 

• • The victim usually gets stuck to the source of the electricity, and it is important that you first separate him from the electrical source.

  • Turn off the power supply switch and disconnect the plug. It’s best to simply turn off the main power supply or pull out the fuse. Often, simply turning off the switch may not stop the flow of electricity.

  • In certain circumstances it may be quicker to simply pull the victim away from the electrical source.

  • Do NOT touch the victim with your bare hands, or the electric current will pass through you as well.

  • If you are barefoot, stand of some clothes or any hand non-conductive material like wood or paper. Make sure you are not standing on anything that is wet.

  • Throw a blanket over the victim and try to separate him from the source. Maje sure you don’t touch him though. You could also use dry, nonconductive material such as a wooden broom handle or a chair to separate the victim from the live current. whatever is handy.

  • Once the victim has been separated, check to see if he is breathing. If breathing has stopped or seems slow, administer CPR immediately.

  • Let his head be slightly lower than the rest of the body, and raise his legs.

  • Cover the victim with a blanket.

  • Move the victim as little as possible. He may have suffered injuries to his spine and neck.

  • If the victim has a burn, remove the clothing from the burned area (unless it’s stuck to the skin) and rinse it in cool, running water. Cover the burn with a dressing.

  • Don’t apply ice or any other ointment or cotton dressing to the burn.

  • Call for emergency medical attention as soon as possible.

FAINTING

About Fainting

   Common Causes

   Symptoms

   Treatment 

   Prevention

    About Fainting

• • Fainting occurs due to decreased blood supply to brain

    • • A fainting spell is usually very brief

        • • It may or may not have medical significance

   Common Causes

• • Anxiety

    • • Emotional upset

        • • Stress

            • • Severe pain

                • Skipping meals

                • Standing up too fast

                • Standing for a long time in a crowd

                • Some medications

                • Diabetes

                • Blood Pressure 

   Symptoms

Before fainting, a person may experience the following:

• • Nausea

    • • Giddiness

        • • Excessive sweating

            • • Dim vision

                • Rapid heart beat or palpitations

   Treatment

• • Fainting is a medical emergency, till proven otherwise

    • • When a person feels faint-

      • Make them sit down or lie down

        • • If sitting, position head between knees

            • • When a person faints, position him on his back

                • Check to see if airways are clear

                • Restore blood flow by 

                • Loosening clothing/belts/collars

                • Elevate feet above head level

                • Patient should become normal within a minute

                • If not, seek medical help 

                • Check if breathing/pulse is normal

                • If not, do     Cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR)

   Prevention

• • When symptoms appear, lie down

    • • Try do avoid stress and anxiety

        • • Carefully evaluate your medications

          • Take care of underlying medical conditions

FIRST AID FOR CHOKING

First Aid for Choking

Here are some tips your must know.

Children choke on pieces of food, toys, and household objects. Babies and toddlers are at greatest risk because they have a natural tendency to put things in their mouths, they cannot chew well, and their small upper airways can easily become obstructed. Fortunately, choking deaths are preventable. Here’s how to keep your child safe.

In an Emergency :

When a child gags on a drink or a piece of food, she will often cough forcefully enough to clear her airway. Don’t slap her back or reach into her mouth with your fingers while she’s coughing; it could push the object farther down her windpipe. If your child can no longer speak, cough, or cry, and her face starts turning blue, you must intervene immediately. Have someone call for help while you begin first aid.

HOW TO SAVE AN OLDER CHILD ( MORE THAN ONE YEAR)

1. Perform the Heimlich maneuver: Stand or kneel behind your child with your arms around her waist. (If she is unconscious, lay her on her back and kneel at her feet.)

2. Make a fist and hold it with your other hand against your child’s abdomen, just above the navel and below the rib cage. (If your child is lying down, place the heel of your hand in the middle of her stomach just above the belly button and below the rip cage, resting your other hand on the top of the first.) Pressing firmly but gently on her abdomen, give upwards thrusts in sets of five until the object is expelled.

3. If the object isn’t cleared and your child loses consciousness, lay her on her back and open her mouth. If you see the obstruction, carefully sweep you index finger across the back or her throat to remove it.

4. Perform rescue breathing: Open the airway by tilting the head back and lifting the chin up.

5. Keeping the airway open, pinch your child’s nose shut with your fingers, seat your mouth over hers, and give two slow breaths. Continue mouth-to-mouth respiration until she resumes normal breathing or medical help arrives. Note: If your child’s chest doesn’t begin to rise, the object is still blocking her airway. Repeat steps 1 to 5 until the object is coughed up or help arrives.

6. Even if your child seems fine after a choking incident that requires intervention, take her to the doctor to make sure that the blockage has been completely removed and that there is no lasting damage.

To Lower Your Childs Risk

Keep your child away from garbage, especially any kitchen trash that he can swallow, such as eggshells or pop tabs from soda cans.

Mash, puree, or blend your baby’s food thoroughly before serving it. For toddlers, cut all food into smaller-than-bite-size pieces.

Choose age-appropriate toys that do not contain small parts. If you have older children, keep their toys, which may contain choking hazards, out of your toddler’s reach.

never let your child chew on a balloon, which he could inhale.

Make sure that your child is sitting down while he eats, and never leave him unattended during meals.

Do not allow your child to play games with his food – filling his cheeks like a chipmunk or catching popcorn in his mouth, for example. Teach him to chew and swallow before talking and laughing.

Too Tiny for Tots

Once your baby starts to crawl, be sure to keep potential choking hazards – any object OR toy small enough to fit through a toilet paper tube – out of kids’ reach. Here’s are some common culprits:

Coins

Un-inflated rubber balloons and pieces of broken balloon

Button Batteries

Toys with small detachable parts

Marbles

Safety pins

Tacks

Jewelry

Buttons

Crayons

Pen Caps

Nails

Screws

Food Hazards

Most choking emergencies are caused by food. Do not give a child under 4 anything to eat that is round, hard, small, thick and sticky, smooth, or slippery. Some foods to avoid:

• Sunflower Seeds

• Ice cubes

• Gum

• Caramel

• Raw peas

• Popcorn

• Fish with bones

• Raw Celery

• Pretzel nuggets

• Mini Marshmallows

• Whole grapes

• Hot dogs and sausage

• Large pieces of meat

• Hard candy

• Nuts (especially peanuts)

• Raw carrots (including baby carrots and coin-shaped slices)

• Peanut butter (unless it is spread very thinly)

• Large pieces of dried fruit (apricots, apples, prunes)

KNOTS & HITCHES

DRAW HITCH OR HIGHWAY MAN’S HITCH

DRAW HITCH OR HIGHWAY MAN’S HITCH OR THIEF HITCH

The highwayman’s hitch is a type of knot. It is a quick-release, draw loop hitch popular for temporarily securing horses. There are two main features to this hitch. It can be untied with a tug of the working end, and the working and standing ends are released on the same side of the object (ex. pipe fence rail) that was tied on to.

Both of these features are desirable when dealing with horse emergencies where a panicked animal may be straining against a tied off lead rope. Because the working (free) and standing (horse) ends release on the same side of the object tied to, the free end of the rope is not whipped around behind the rail by the animal, thereby forcing the quick-release grip on the rope to be abandoned.

DRAW HITCH

The knot is three bights linked through one another. To tie, begin by forming a bight behind the pole. Next, pass a bight formed from the standing part (the end that will receive tension) over the pole and through the first bight. Then, pass a bight formed from the working end over the pole and through the second bight. Pull the standing part tight to ensure that it holds. Until the knot is tightened and properly dressed the highwayman’s hitch has little holding power. When properly tied to posts or rails of approximately 2.5 – 3 inches diameter using the large diameter, compressible ropes commonly used for hose leads, it can be a remarkably secure knot.

FIREMAN’S CHAIR KNOT

 FIREMAN’S CHAIR KNOT

Make half hitch. Right under left.

Make a second half hitch. Again right under left.

Bring right hitch in front of left hitch.

Grab hitches as shown. Pull through.

Make another half hitch. Put loop through.

Make half hitch on the left. Put loop through.

Pull ends to tighten

Use:

The fireman’s chair knot is a rescue knot. There are two loops formed. One which goes under the arms; the other under the legs of person.

Care should be taken when tying this knot.

MANHARNESS KNOT

MANHARNESS KNOT

The principal use of this knot is to make a loop in the middle of a rope that is being used for hauling or climbing. A man can then use the loop as a harness over his shoulder so he can put his full weight to its best use. Form an underhand loop as shown at top. Grasp the loop at (A) and lay it over the part of rope shown by the arrow. The result will be shown in the middle drawing. Now grasp the rope at (B) and draw it up under and over as shown at bottom. This forms the bight which becomes the loop for your shoulder. Draw the knot tight before using it.

MAPPING

PLANE TABLE METHOD OF MAP MAKING

PLANE TABLE METHOD OF MAP MAKING

TRIANGULATION METHOD OF MAP MAKING

TRIANGULATION METHOD – 03

TRIANGULATION METHOD OF MAP MAKING

MAP COLOURS

The Role of Colors on Maps

By Matt Rosenberg

Cartographers utilize color on a map to represent certain features. Color use is often consistent across different types of maps by different cartographers or publishers. Map colors are (or should be, for a professional looking map) always consistent on a single map.

Many colors used on maps have a relationship to the object or feature on the ground. For example, blue is almost always the color chosen for fresh water or ocean (bust blue may not just represent water).

Political maps, which show more human created features (especially boundaries), usually use more map colors than physical maps, which represent the landscape often without regard for human modification.

Political maps will often use four or more colors to represent different countries or internal divisions of countries (such as states). Political maps will also use such colors as blue for water and black and/or red for cities, roads, and railways. Political maps will also often use black to show boundaries, differing the type of dashes and/or dots used in the line to represent the type of boundary – international, state, or county or other political subdivision.

Physical maps commonly use color most dramatically to show changes in elevation. A palette of greens is often used to display common elevations. Dark green usually represents low-lying land with lighter shades of green used for higher elevations. In the higher elevations, physical maps will often use a palette of light brown to dark brown to show higher elevations. Such maps will commonly use reds or white or purples to represent the highest elevations on the map.

With such a map that uses shades of greens, browns, and the like, it is very important to remember that the color does not represent the ground cover. For example, just because the Mojave Desert is shown in green due to the low elevation, it doesn’t mean that the desert is lush with green crops. Likewise, the peaks of mountains shown in white does not indicate that the mountains are capped in ice and snow all year long.

On physical maps, blues are used for water, with darker blues used for the deepest water and lighter blues used for more shallow water. For elevations below sea level, a green-grey or red or blue-grey or some other color is used.

Road maps and other general use maps are often a jumble of color. They use map colors in a variety of ways…

• • Blue – lakes, rivers, streams, oceans, reservoirs, highways, local borders

  • Red – major highways, roads, urban areas, airports, special interest sites, military sites, place names, buildings, borders

  • Yellow – built-up or urban areas

  • Green – parks, golf courses, reservations, forest, orchards, highways

  • Brown – deserts, historical sites, national parks, military reservations or bases, contour (elevation) lines

  • Black – roads, railroads, highways, bridges, place names, buildings, borders

  • Purple – highways, (also used on U.S.G.S. topographic maps to represent features added to the map since the original survey)

SCALE & TYPES OF SCALES IN MAP

Map Scale – Measuring Distance on a Map

Measuring Distances on a Map: Map Scale

By Matt Rosenberg

A map represents a portion of the earth’s surface. Since an accurate map represents the land, each map has a “scale” which indicates the relationship between a certain distance on the map and the distance on the ground. The map scale is usually located in the legend box of a map, which explains the symbols and provides other important information about the map. A map scale can be printed in a variety of ways.

A ratio or representative fraction (RF) indicates how many units on the earth’s surface is equal to one unit on the map. It can be expressed as 1/100,000 or 1:100,000. In this example, one centimeter on the map equals 100,000 centimeters (1 kilometer) on the earth. It also means that one inch on the map is equal to 100,000 inches on the land (8,333 feet, 4 inches or about 1.6 miles). Or even 1 paperclip on the map is equal to 100,000 paperclips on the ground. Other common RFs include 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) and 1:1,000,000 (1 cm to 10 km).

A word statement gives a written description of map distance, such as “One centimeter equals one kilometer” or “One centimeter equals ten kilometers.” Obviously, the first map would show much more detail than the second because one centimeter on the first map covers a much smaller area then on the second map.

The first two methods of indicating map distance would be ineffective if the map is reproduced by a method such as photocopying and the size of the map is modified. If this occurs, and one attempts to measure an inch on the modified map, it’s not the same as an inch on the original map.

A graphic scale does solve this problem because it is simply a line marked with distance on the ground which the map user can use along with a ruler to determine scale on the map. In the U.S., a graphic scale often includes both metric and U.S. common units. As long as the size of the graphic scale is changed along with the map, it will be accurate.

Maps are often known as large scale or small scale. A large scale map refers to one which shows greater detail because the representative fraction (e.g. 1/25,000) is a larger fraction than a small scale map which would have an RF of 1/250,000 to 1/7,500,000. Large scale maps will have a RF of 1:50,000 or greater (i.e. 1:10,000). Those between 1:50,000 to 1:250,000 are maps with an intermediate scale. Maps of the world which fit on two 8 1/2 by 11 inch pages are very small scale, about 1 to 100 million.

scale

scale, in cartography, the ratio of the distance between two points on a map to the real distance between the two corresponding points portrayed. The scale may be expressed in three ways: numerically, as a ratio or a fraction, e.g., 1:100,000 or 1/100,000; verbally, e.g., “one inch to one mile” (not “one inch equals one mile”); and graphically, by marking distances on a sample line. The last method has the advantage that the scale remains true even if the map is enlarged or reduced mechanically. The first method is particularly useful since any unit of measurement may be used; e.g., if one uses metric units, a scale of 1:100,000 would mean that one centimeter on the map represents one kilometer on the earth’s surface (since 100,000 centimeters equals one kilometer). The more the size of features on the map approaches the features’ actual size on the earth’s surface, the larger the scale of the map is said to be. A large-scale map usually shows more detail than does a small-scale map, but covers a smaller area than does a small-scale map of the same size.

MAP SCALES & UNITS

This handout was designed to help you understand the relationships between different map scales, map units, distance, and area. You should understand the logic behind how these are used and how they should appear on real topographic maps. On your upcoming lab exam, you should also be able to convert one type of map scale into another, and calculate size differences (scale factor, area factor) between different maps.

A. Review of Common Types of Map Scales

All map scales are an expression of the numerical relationship between the MAP and the LAND that is represented. The MAP unit is always mentioned first.

1. Verbal Scale: The verbal scale is just a sentence stating that “1 Map Unit = X Land Units”.For reasons of convenience, a mixture of units is commonly used, such as

1 inch  = 1 mile

However, there are NO requirements that the units must be different! The expression “1 inch = 63,360 inches” is still a verbal scale. A mixture of map and land units makes the verbal scale difficult to compare between different maps – it must be converted first to a Representative Fraction (see below).

2. Representative Fraction (R.F.): An R.F. scale is a ratio, or fraction, that expresses the mathematical relationship between MAP and LAND, such as

1 : 24,000

which means “1 map unit is equivalent to 24,000 land units.” Because an R.F. carries no units (inches, centimeters, etc.), it means that the R.F. scales can be compared between different maps. Converting an R.F. scale to a verbal scale is very easy; simply select ONE unit and apply it to BOTH map and land numbers. The above example can be written as a verbal scale as “1 inch = 24,000 inches” or “1 meter = 24,000 meters,” etc. (Note: YOU CANNOT MIX UNITS in an R.F.! Doing so will change the numerical relationship of the R.F.)

3. Graphic Scale: The graphic scale is a bar chart or “ruler” that is drawn at the bottom of a topographic map. This is the scale that you should use when asked to measure distances on the map. Be Careful: Note that the zero mark is not located at the left end of the graphic scale. For your convenience, the graphic scale extends to the left of the zero mark to indicate fractions of units, such as 1/10 of a mile. You may measure distances by marking off the 2 end points on the edge of a sheet of paper and aligning the edge of the paper against the graphic scale (make sure one of your marks is on the zero).

TYPES OF MAPS

Types of Maps

There are several types of maps. Each show different information. Most maps include a compass rose, which indicates which way is north, south, east and west. They also include a scale so you can estimate distances. Here’s a look at some different types of maps.

Climate maps

give general information about the climate and precipitation (rain and snow) of a region. Cartographers, or mapmakers, use colors to show different climate or precipitation zones.

Economic or resource maps

feature the type of natural resources or economic activity that dominates an area. Cartographers use symbols to show the locations of natural resources or economic activities. For example, oranges on a map of Florida tell you that oranges are grown there.

Physical maps

illustrate the physical features of an area, such as the mountains, rivers and lakes. The water is usually shown in blue. Colors are used to show relief—differences in land elevations. Green is typically used at lower elevations, and orange or brown indicate higher elevations.

Political maps

do not show physical features. Instead, they indicate state and national boundaries and capital and major cities. A capital city is usually marked with a star within a circle.

Road maps

show major—some minor highways—and roads, airports, railroad tracks, cities and other points of interest in an area. People use road maps to plan trips and for driving directions.

Topographic maps

include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area. Lines that are close together indicate steep terrain, and lines that are far apart indicate flat terrain.

Planimetric Map. A planimetric map presents only the horizontal positions for the features represented. It is distinguished from a topographic map by the omission of relief, normally represented by contour lines. Sometimes, it is called a line map.

Topographic Map. A topographic map portrays terrain features in a measurable way, as well as the horizontal positions of the features represented. The vertical positions, or relief, are normally represented by contour lines on military topographic maps. On maps showing relief, the elevations and contours are measured from a specific vertical datum plane, usually mean sea level.

Photomap. A photomap is a reproduction of an aerial photograph upon which grid lines, marginal data, place names, route numbers, important elevations, boundaries, and approximate scale and direction have been added.

Military City Map. A military city map is a topographic map (usually at 1:12,550 scale, sometimes up to 1:5,000), showing the details of a city. It delineates streets and shows street names, important buildings, and other elements of the urban landscape important to navigation and military operations in urban terrain. The scale of a military city map depends on the importance and size of the city, density of detail, and available intelligence information.

Special Maps. Special maps are for special purposes such as trafficability, communications, and assault maps. They are usually in the form of an overprint in the scales smaller than 1:100,000 but larger than 1:1,000,000. A special purpose map is one that has been designed or modified to give information not covered on a standard map. The wide range of subjects that could be covered under the heading of special purpose maps prohibits, within the scope of this manual, more than a brief mention of a few important ones. Some of the subjects covered are:

• • Terrain features.

  • Drainage characteristics.

  • Vegetation.

  • Climate.

  • Coasts and landing beaches.

  • Roads and bridges.

  • Railroads.

  • Airfields.

  • Urban areas.

  • Electric power.

  • Fuels.

  • Surface water resources.

  • Ground water resources.

  • Natural construction materials.

  • Cross-country movements.

  • Suitability for airfield construction.

  • Airborne operations.

If military maps are not available, use substitute maps. The substitute maps can range from foreign military or commercial maps to field sketches. The NGA can provide black and white reproductions of many foreign maps and can produce its own maps based upon intelligence.

Foreign Maps. Foreign maps have been compiled by nations other than our own. When they must be used, the marginal information and grids are changed to conform to our standards, if time permits. The scales may differ from our maps, but they do express the ratio of map distance to ground distance and can be used in the same way. The legend must be used since the map symbols almost always differ from ours. Because the accuracy of foreign maps varies considerably, they are usually evaluated in regard to established accuracy standards before they are issued to our troops.

Atlases. Atlases are collections of maps of regions, countries, continents, or the world. Such maps are accurate only to a degree and can be used for general information only.

Geographic Maps. Geographic maps provide an overall idea of the mapped area in relation to climate, population, relief, vegetation, and hydrography. They also show the general location of major urban areas.

Tourist Road Maps. Tourist road maps are maps of a region in which the main means of transportation and areas of interest are shown. Some of these maps show secondary networks of roads, historic sites, museums, and beaches in detail. They may contain road and time distance between points. The scale should be carefully considered when using these maps.

City/Utility Maps. City/utility maps are maps of urban areas showing streets, water ducts, electricity and telephone lines, and sewers.

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

Topographic maps show a 3 dimensional world in 2 dimensions by using contour lines. Many people have trouble reading these maps, because they have mountains and valleys are represented with concentric circles and lines. Many hikers use topographic maps, especially in areas where there are no roads with signs. Geologists depend on topographic maps to record the types of rocks. Engineers use topographic maps when they are planning roads, buildings, or other human–made structures. Imagine designing a city without considering where hills and valleys are located!

GEOLOGIC MAPS

A geologic map is a map of the different types of rocks that are on the surface of the Earth. By mapping different rock types, geologists can determine the relationships between different rock formations which can then be used to find mineral resources, oil, and gravel deposits. Also, you want to know what type of rock you are building on or else you might have a Leaning Tower of Pisa or a pile of rubble after a strong earthquake.

BIOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS

Scientists involved in the study of animals, plants, and other living organisms use maps to illustrate where these groups live or migrate. It is important to many zoologists to know where the organisms that they study live and where they move to. People who monitor endangered species need to know if the ranges of migration have become larger or smaller through time.

ENVIRONMENTAL MAPS

These types of maps include maps that look at human’s activity in urban and metropolitan areas and the environment in which we all live. Maps that illustrate physiographic features such as forests, grassland, woodland, tundra, grazing land, ocean floors, and ocean sediments could be included in this large grouping.

Meteorological maps that show climate, weather and wind are types of environmental maps. Meteorologists, oceanographers, geographers, city planners, and many other professionals depend greatly on these maps to record and forecast their specific field.

 5 TYES OF MAPS:

There are basically 5 types of maps. They are climate maps, economic or resource maps, environmental maps, political maps, topographic maps.

Climate maps give information about climatic and precipitation conditions prevalent in a region. Precipitation – rain AND/OR snow.

Economic or resource maps feature the type of natural resources or economic activities known in that area.

Physical maps show the physical features of an area, such as mountains and rivers. They usually use colors such as blue, green and orange. Green is usually used for low-lying areas and orange is used for higher altitudes.

Political maps indicate state and national boundaries.

Road maps show the major highways, railway tracks, airports and places of interest within a country, county, state, province or city.

Topographic maps are maps which use contour lines to highlight the shape and elevation of an area. Closer contours mean a steeper terrain, and if the lines are far apart from each other- it indicates a flatter terrain.

such as globle warming as you know are states are moving slowley in life so the types of maps can change.

TYPES OF MAPS

Well there are quite a few types of maps and it depends on where you are and where you’re going.

Thematic Maps: show features, population, and rainfall

Inventory Maps: concentrate on a specific feature and show precise location

Political Maps: boundries of countries, provinces, and states

Mobility Maps: help people find their way on land, water, and air

Transit: routes of buses, trains, subways, public transportation.

Charts: help ships and planes

Types of Maps

There are different types of maps meant for various purposes. Most of us are only aware of the political and road maps, however, there’s more to maps than we know. Read on to know more.

We depend on maps all the time, to guide us and help us reach our destination. The GPRS system is gaining popularity and myriads of people are depending on this system to find their way around. Even in malls we depend on the map of the mall provided to find the store we want (especially the food court!).

Maps are ingenious inventions of man, without which we would have had to spend scores of hours locating places and wasting precious time by getting lost. All this time wastage can be avoided today by referring to maps and obeying the instructions with respect to the direction given on it. Maps are actually representations of the Earth’s surface that depicts where what is located on the earth and the respective distance from one place to another. It gives you a bird’s eye view of places, distances, direction and size. Moreover, what’s best is that these maps are sheets of paper that can be rolled and carried around wherever you go. There are different types of maps suited for various needs. Let’s have a look at the different types of maps and their uses.

Different Kinds of Maps and Their Uses

The different types of maps and their uses are as follows:

Climate Maps or Weather Maps

Not all maps are used to find places, locate landmarks and streets, instead there are weather maps as well that help weather forecast. They are depictions of weather patterns prevalent in particular areas. The information presented on these climate maps can be jotted down and used for various purposes. These maps actually map factors such as temperature, precipitation, seasonal variations and various geographical features that help distinguish the several climate zones (arid, equatorial, warm-temperature, snow and polar). The data on these maps keep constantly changing due to changing climatic conditions. To attain this climate information, various data fields such as satellite images, radar, etc. are used, which are then combined to form one picture that can be printed out or viewed digitally. Read more on how to read a weather map.

Physical Maps

These maps are special maps depicting physical characteristics of a place, for example, it denotes the various landforms like mountain ranges, valleys, deserts, plains, etc. and water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc. The elevations of mountain ranges are shown by the various lines, shading patterns, spots, tints, etc. in different colors on the maps. Blue color is used to depict the water.

Political maps

Political maps are maps we are all familiar with. These maps represent the different nations across the globe along with the state divisions, their capitals and important cities. Thanks to these maps we can learn more about nations and their cities.

Economic or Resource Maps

These are the maps that are used to represent the economic resources or natural resource wealth of a particular region across the globe. Symbols are used on the map to denote a particular resource. For example, the presence of oranges on the map tells us that Florida is rich in oranges, whereas, the presence of wheat on the map quickly tells us that wheat is grown in abundance in Maryland. Other resources like coal, petroleum, oil, metals, etc. also have their respective symbols that tell us where they are found in abundance. Thus, at one glance, one can find out the resources of different places.

Road maps

This is another type of map we are all familiar with. Going for a holiday by road and not taking a map is like going to the Alps in your summer clothes. In fact road maps also help us find places in our own city. Road maps represent street directions to places across the city. This road to road direction helps us find our way really easily.

Topographic maps

Some of us have had the privilege of learning how to read these maps at school itself. These maps feature contour lines that denote shape and elevation of a particular region. This means if the region houses steep terrain, the lines will be close to each other, while flat terrain is denoted by lines separated by a larger distance. These maps are very important for construction and road work. Moreover, even geologists use the help of these maps to collect data and record types of rocks.

Conventional signs

The various features shown on a map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. These signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet

A map is a birds eye view of a piece of land draw on a mangerbal piece of paper only accret to the day it was printed., almost everything that appears on a map, except a written name, is a conventional sign.

Conventional signs are designed to enable the maximum amount of information to be put on a map in the clearest way possible.

Why are symbols used in maps?

Because there’s not enough room to print the words of the items represented by the symbols.

For simplicity and due to space constraints. It makes the map easier to understand. In addition, if full names of features were to be used on maps, it would be too messy to read.

Since a map is a reduced representation of the real world, map symbols are used to represent real objects. Without symbols, we wouldn’t have maps.

Both shapes and colors can be used for symbols on maps. A small circle may mean a point of interest, with a brown circle meaning recreation, red circle meaning services, and green circle meaning rest stop. Colors may cover larger areas of a map, such as green representing forested land and blue representing waterways.

To ensure that a person can correctly read a map, a Map Legend is a key to all the symbols used on a map. It is like a dictionary so you can understand the meaning of what the map represents.

Map Reading

Map Reading Basics

By Matt Rosenberg

Maps are the basic tools of geography. They enable us to depict spatial phenomenon on paper. There are conventions used in cartography which allow a map to be read efficiently and quickly.

A good map will have a legend or key which will show the user what different symbols mean. For instance, a square with a flag on top usually represents a school and roads are represented by a variety of widths and combinations of lines. Often a dashed line represents a border. Note, however, that map symbols used in the United States are often used for different things in other countries. The symbol for a secondary highway on a USGS Topographic map is equivalent to a railroad in Switzerland. Make sure to read the legend and you’ll understand the symbols.

Every map is a representation of a larger portion of the earth. Read the feature about scale to learn more about how to determine the distance on earth represented on the map.

Without a north arrow, it is difficult to determine the orientation of a map. With a north arrow (pointing in the correct direction), a user can determine direction. Some maps, such as topographic maps, will point to “true north” (the north pole) and to magnetic north (where your compass points, to northern Canada). Usually, you won’t see something quite as detailed as a compass rose but a map does need to provide orientation.

A neatline is the border of a map. It helps to define the edge of the map area and obviously keeps things looking “neat.”

Since the map is a flat representation of the curved surface of the earth, all maps are inherently inaccurate. There are a variety of projections which have been formulated for different uses.

A map’s title provides important clues about the cartographer’s intentions and goals. You can hope to expect entirely different information on a map titled “Unemployment in Jefferson County” versus “Topography of Mount St. Helens.”

Color appears so often on maps that we often take it for granted that mountains are brown and rivers are blue. Just as there are many types of color maps, there are also many differentcolor schemes used by cartographers. The map user should look to the legend for an explanation of colors on a map.

Our expectations of colors on a map leads to some problems when it is used for elevation. Elevation is often represented as a sequence of dark greens (low elevation or even below sea level) to browns (hills) to white or gray (highest elevation). Since many people associate green with a fertile region, many map users will see lower elevations, which may be deserts, and assume those areas are filled with lush vegetation. Also, people may see the reds and browns of mountains and assume that they are barren, Grand Canyon-type landscapes of desolation but the mountains may be forested and covered in brush.

Additionally, as water always appears bright blue on a map, the user is often inclined to visualize any water on a map as pristine and clear blue – even though it might be entirely different color due to pollution.

MAP – MEANING

  MAP

A map is a flat, two-dimensional representation of an area. Usually maps present a view from above. Normally the space they represent is a geographic area (cities, towns, countries or neighbourhoods, for example), but maps can in theory represent non-geographical things (a “map” of the circulatory system) or even things with no physical reality at all (a “map” of someone’s consciousness).

A globe is a three-dimensional map of the earth overlayed on a sphere. Other differences include the fact that any large map, being an attempt to display part of the surface of a sphere (the earth) on a flat sheet of paper, is always distorted to some degree, while a globe is not.

PIONEERING PROJECTS

Pioneering projects

 Simple Ladder Bridge – Pioneering for the Scouts

 Equipment– 6 x spars 3.6m to 5m (12 to 16ft) long

– 6 x spars 2.5m (8ft) long

– 2 x spars 2m (6ft long)

– light spars for ladder rungs

– lashing lengths

– large pegs or pickets

Method

Start by making a tripod on each side of the stream/gully using two long spars and a shorter one that will be the back leg. The actual lengths of the spars will depend on the depth of the stream etc. Use either a figure of eight or a tripod lashing.

Lash horizontal spars across the long legs to form and A frame. They should be positioned so that they will be slightly higher than the bank when the legs are placed in their final positions.

Place the longer legs in the stream so that they have firm footings and are on line. Pull the shorter legs back until they are stable.

Drive a picket into the ground alongside and at right angles to the back spar and lash the two together.

The footways are ladders made from light spars lashed along longer spars. For additional strength fix the rungs on top of their supports. The ladder for the central span should be a good fit inside the A frame. The outer ladders should be narrower so that they will fit inside the centre ladder. It may be necessary to tie the ladders to the A frames to ensure they do not slip.

Finally, fit two hand ropes between the tripods as shown in the diagram.

PIONEERING PROJECTS

PIONEERING PROJECT

MONKEY BRIDGE

MONKEY BRIDGE

Equipment

– 4 x spars 3.6m long

– 2 x spars 2m long

– 8 – 10 light spars for ladder rungs

– lashing lengths

– Additional light lines 2 – 3m long

– 3 hawsers 20 – 24m long

– 1 pulley suitable for hawsers

– 1 Handy Billy

– sisal

– sacking

– large pegs or pickets

MethodThis bridge will require substantial ground anchors at each end. Before you start building, check to see if there are any suitable trees to act as anchors. If you do use trees, do not forget to protect them from abrasion by wrapping them in sacking.Construct 2 A frames by laying 2 x 3.6m spars alongside each other and tying a sheer lashing approx 1 1/2m from the top. Open the spars out and lash a 2m spar across the base, using square lashings.Lash light spars above the base to form a simple ladder.To protect the ropes, place some sacking in the crutch of the frame and secure it in place with sisal.Tie guy ropes to the top of the spars.Tomake the walkway, lay the foot rope on the ground and mark the approximate position of the A frame.Place the hand rope about 1.25m either side of the foot rope. It is a good idea to peg these ropes down to maintain the spacing during the next stage.Using the light line (6mm polypropylene is ideal) attach the middle to the foot rope with a clove hitch and the ends to the hand ropes with a round turn and two half hitches. The bridge will require a vee rope every metre or so.With the A frames in position, but still on the ground, check the alignment of the bridge – the frames must be in a straight line between the ground anchors/trees.Anchor one end of the foot rope using a round turn and two half hitches and fit a Handy Billy to theother.Raise one A frame at a time and guy them when they are upright. Heel the butts into the ground to stop them sliding during use.As you tension the foot rope, use a light spar to ease it over the A frame otherwise it will lock in the crutch and tend to pull the frame over. Make the other end of the rope off and remove the Handy Billy.The bridge should now be strong enough to allow the A frames to be climbed. Attach the hand ropes to the top of the spars using a loose square lashing. Tension them off using the Handy Billy and then tighten the lashings with a couple of frapping turns.NoteThe tension in the hand ropes must be the same. This can be achieved either by using a very long rope doubled back on itself or by looping the two ropes together and placing a sing large pulley block in that loop. The ropes are tensioned with the Handy Billy attached to this block.

PIONEERING PROJECTS

PIONEERING PROJECTS

Banana Bridge

BANANA BRIDGE

Equipment

– 20 x 1.8m (6ft) spars

– 5 x 2.4m (8ft) spars

– 8 x 3.0m (10ft) spars

– 4 x 4.0m (12ft) spars

– 4 x 5.0m (16ft) spars

– 68 lashing lengths

– 6 long ropes

– large tent pegs

– 4 stout pickets

– 1 maulMethodConstruct 4 pairs of sheer legs using 8 x 3m (10ft) spars and sheer lashings – two on each side of your stream or ravine.Lean the sheer legs together in pairs to form two low pyramidsLash the 5m (16ft) spars across the long sides of each pyramid.Lash 2.4m (8ft) spars across the short side of each pyramid to provide stability during assembly.Prepare a ‘trapeze’ to support the centre of the walkway by tying a lashing length to each end of the remaining 2.4m spar with a round turn and two half hitches. Tie the other end of the lashing lengths to the corners of one of the pyramids at A and B.Tie a long rope to the corners of the pyramid next to the trapeze ropes. These will be used to raise the pyramid into position.Easethe pyramid forward across the stream, lifting it using the long ropes and manoeuvering the corners on the ground into position. Place large pegs in the ground to prevent the corners sliding. Lift it higher then the finished structure will require and tie off the long ropes to pickets to stabilise it.Place the other half of the bridge in line with the first, tie two long ropes to the corners and raise it, maneuvering it into position and putting in pegs around the bottomcorners.With a team of Scouts on either side, gently lower the pyramids until theyinterlock.Lash the 12ft spars together to form the sides of the walkway. Lash the 1.8m (6ft) spars across these to make a ladder.Carefully pass the ladder across the stream and through the trapeze so that either end rests on the bank.Helpful hintCareful measurement is required to ensure that the pyramids are the correct distance apart – this may only be resolved through trial and error. Too far apart and they will not lock but will fall down – too close and they may fall backwards.Knock pegs into the banks and lash the ends of the ladder to them to ensure they do not slip. Finally, tie ropes between the pyramids to act as hand rails

SCOUTING IN INDIA

THE BHARAT SCOUTS AND GUIDES – HISTORY

SHORT SPLICE

Short Splice

BACK SPLICE

The Back Splice