NOTES DWITHIYA SOPAN
COMPASS
FINDING NORTH BY CONSTELLATIONS
Star Method.
(1) Less than 60 of approximately 5,000 stars visible to the eye are used by navigators. The stars seen as we look up at the sky at night are not evenly scattered across the whole sky. Instead they are in groups called constellations.
(2) The constellations that we see depends partly on where we are located on the earth, the time of the year, and the time of the night. The night changes with the seasons because of the journey of the earth around the sun, and it also changes from hour to hour because the turning of the earth makes some constellations seem to travel in a circle. But there is one star that is in almost exactly the same place in the sky all night long every night. It is the North Star, also known as the Polar Star or Polaris.
(3) The North Star is less than 1° off true north and does not move from its place because the axis of the earth is pointed toward it. The North Star is in the group of stars called the Little Dipper. It is the last star in the handle of the dipper. There are two stars in the Big Dipper, which are a big help when trying to find the North Star. They are called the Pointers, and an imaginary line drawn through them five times their distance points to the North Star. There are many stars brighter than the North Star, but none is more important because of its location. However, the North Star can only be seen in the northern hemisphere so it cannot serve as a guide south of the equator. The farther one goes north, the higher the North Star is in the sky, and above latitude 70°, it is too high in the sky to be useful (Figure 9-9).
FIGURE 9.9
Figure 9-9. Determining direction by the North Star and Southern Cross.
(4) Depending on the star selected for navigation, azimuth checks are necessary. A star near the north horizon serves for about half an hour. When moving south, azimuth checks should be made every 15 minutes. When traveling east or west, the difficulty of staying on azimuth is caused more by the likelihood of the star climbing too high in the sky or losing itself behind the western horizon than it is by the star changing direction angle. When this happens, it is necessary to change to another guide star. The Southern Cross is the main constellation used as a guide south of the equator, and the above general directions for using north and south stars are reversed. When navigating using the stars as guides, the user must know the different constellation shapes and their locations throughout the world (Figure 9-10 and Figure 9-11).
Figure 9-10. Constellations, northern hemisphere.
FIGURE 9.10
Figure 9-11. Constellations, southern hemisphere.
FIGURE 9.11
SCOUT PACE
Pace (unit)
A pace (or double-pace or passus) is a measure of distance used in Ancient Rome. It is the measure of a full stride from the position of the heel when it is raised from the ground to the point the same heel is set down again at the end of the step. Thus, a distance can be “paced off” by counting each time the same heel touches ground, or, in other words, every other step. In Rome, this unit was standardized as two gradūs or five Roman feet (about 1.48 metres or 58.1 English inches). There are 1000 passus in one mille, and a mille was sometimes referred to as a mille passus.
The Byzantine pace or vema (βήμα [ˈvima]) was 2½ feet (pous)
A pace in modern terminology is usually taken as being a single pace rather than a double pace. It has no formal definition but is taken as being around 30 inches
Bearings
A directional compass is shown below. It is used to find a direction or bearing .
The four main directions of a compass are known as cardinal points. They are north (N), east (E), south (S) and west (W). Sometimes, the half-cardinal points of north-east (NE), north-west (NW), south-east (SE) and south-west (SW) are shown on the compass. The above compass shows degree measurements from 0° to 360° in 10° intervals with:
north representing 0° or 360°
east representing 90°
south representing 180°
west representing 270°
When using a directional compass, hold the compass so that the point marked north points directly away from you. Note that the magnetic needle always points to the north.
Bearing
The true bearing to a point is the angle measured in degrees in a clockwise direction from the north line. We will refer to the true bearing simply as the bearing.
For example, the bearing of point P is 065º which is the number of degrees in the angle measured in a clockwise direction from the north line to the line joining the centre of the compass at O with the point P (i.e. OP).
The bearing of point Q is 300º which is the number of degrees in the angle measured in a clockwise direction from the north line to the line joining the centre of the compass at Owith the point Q (i.e. OQ).
Note:
The bearing of a point is the number of degrees in the angle measured in a clockwise direction from the north line to the line joining the centre of the compass with the point.
A bearing is used to represent the direction of one point relative to another point.
For example, the bearing of A from B is 065º. The bearing of B from A is 245º.
Note:
Three figures are used to give bearings.
All bearings are measured in a horizontal plane.
16 POINTS OF A COMPASS
Boxing the compass is the action of naming all thirty-two principal points of the compass in clockwise order.
POINTS OF THE COMPASS
POINTS OF A COMPASS
Before the Magnetic Compass was discovered, early map makers would draw a small 16 pointed circle on the map, and place an “N” to point to North. These were the 16 Cardinal Points from which the winds were thought to blow. This drawing was called a “Wind Rose.” When the magnetic compass came along, it was usually set on top of the Wind Rose pattern in order to help face the nautical chart in the proper direction. The wind rose started to become known as a COMPASS ROSE.
Since the 1100’s, compass bearings have been split into 16 different directions:
North – North North East – North East – East North East – East
East – East South East – South East – South South East – South
South South West – South West – West South West – West
West North West – North West – North North West – North
This was all the accuracy a Mariner’s Compass had to offer then. By today’s standards, it was not very accurate. As spherical mathematics improved, it became more customary to give bearings in units of “Degrees” from Geographic North. In the 1920’s, it became an accepted practice to indicate direction, called HEADING or BEARING, by a single number (0 to 360) representing degrees of a circle as measured clockwise from True North.
The development of the compass instrument itself represents quite an achievement, however the actual use of this instrument is more of an art form. The Compass is not by any means a complex instrument. Anyone from 9 to 90 should be able to learn compass operation with just some practice and understanding a few simple principles.
WHAT IS A COMPASS?
COMPASS
MEANING
A compass (or mariner’s compass) is navigational instrument for finding directions. It consists of a magnetised pointer free to align itself accurately with Earth‘s magnetic field. A compass provides a known reference direction which is of great assistance in navigation. The cardinal points are north, south, east and west. A compass can be used in conjunction with a clock and a sextant to provide a very accurate navigation capability. This device greatly improved maritime trade by making travel safer and more efficient.
A compass can be any magnetic device using a needle to indicate the direction of the magnetic north of a planet’s magnetosphere. Any instrument with a magnetized bar or needle turning freely upon a pivot and pointing in a northerly and southerly direction can be considered a compass. A compass dial is a small pocket compass with a sundial. A variation compass is a specific instrument of a delicate type of construction. It is used by observing variations of the needle. A gyrocompass can also be used to ascertain true North
ESTIMATION – HEIGHT AND DISTANCE
ESTIMATION – HEIGHT AND DISTANCE
ESTIMATION – DISTANCE AND HEIGHT
ESTIMATION – DISTANCE AND HEIGHT
ESTIMATION - 01
ESTIMATION - 02
ESTIMATION - 03
ESTIMATION
ESTIMATION
Learning to Judge Distance
As a means of checking your estimates, learn the exact length of your pace. If fairly tall, learn to pace an exact yard, heel to heel. On a quiet road, in a field, or out on the prairie, begin judging short distances to various objects, then pacing to check your “guess.” Gradually increase the distances. Do this in competition with several other Scouts and you’ll find it an interesting game. Remember that the eye measures distance as in an “air line,” from eye to object, and does not allow for irregularities of the ground. In other words, ground distance may be greater than visual distance.
PERSONAL MEASUREMENT
As an aid in making short measurements you should know a number of your personal measurements. Your known hand-span will often be particularly useful. If fully developed your measurements will be close to this:
Some Further Hints
To estimate greater distances, judge the farthest probable distance, then the nearest possible, and “split the difference.”
FIRST AID
IMPROVISED STRETCHER
MAKING IMPROVISED STRETCHER
USING BLANKLETS AND POLES
IMPRPOVISED STRETCHER USING BLANKLETS AND POLES
USING ROPES
IMPROVISED STRETCHER USING ROPE
A PPT ON MAKING IMPROVISED STRETCHERS
Improvised Stretchers
PRECAUTIONS – GAS LEAK
Safe Handling of LPG
LPG gases are combustible and highly flammable. LPG can burn or explode when it comes in contact with air or a source of ignition. It has the potential to create a disaster. Since LPG is stored under pressure, it can leak from any joint or improperly sealed connection. Awareness or knowledge of safe handling LPG can eliminate the chance of fire or explosion. Following are some useful tips for safe handling of LPG cylinder.
In the early morning, proper precaution is required to ensure that there no gas buildup in the room, by opening doors and windows prior to turning on the stove.
LPG containers are not to be placed in close proximity to the stove or any other sources of flame.
Ensure that the gas tube is not squashed or severely bent.
Choose an LPG supplier who can provide you with well-maintained LPG cylinders, and after-sales support.
Replace the LPG cylinder hose on a regular basis, and replace any damaged or worn hose with a new hose.
Landlords who use agents to manage properties need to ensure that tenants are aware of safe use of LPG and LPG rubber tubes they use have an ISI mark.
Never check for gas leaks using a lit match. Always use a solution of soapy water and look for bubbles coming from around valves and pipe joints. These bubbles indicate a gas leak.
After securely connecting a new or refilled cylinder, apply some soapy water to the cylinder connections and turn on the cylinder.
Any burning objects must be extinguished prior to installation of any equipment to the new LPG cylinder.
Spare cylinders should not be kept next to cylinder in use.
Do not store kerosene or other flammable equipments in the kitchen.
In order to avoid danger, cylinders and its accessories must be used according to the usage instruction.
Never switch on the electricity or light stove when LPG scents are present.
Use a child-safe regulator on the LPG cylinder for domestic use.
Using domestic cylinder for commercial purpose is illegal and if caught legal actions are taken against the consumers under the Essential Commodity Act which is forfeiture of cylinder, penalty and imprisonment up to 3 years.
It is safer to evacuate everyone from the area.
Leaking of LPG
If escaping gas is not on fire, close any valve which will stop or reduce the flow of gas.
Turn off or remove any other source of ignition.
Ventilate the room by opening doors and windows
If you think that there is a danger of a fire, inform your gas supplier or Fire Department and your neighbors immediately.
LPG is on fire
If you have a fire fighting equipment, make sure that you know how to use it, and that it is maintained regularly. If you can’t put it out, leave it to the fire brigade. It is safer to evacuate everyone from the area.
A small fire from a container may be smothered by a wet cloth or dry powder extinguisher and then it may be possible to stop the leak and remove the cylinder to a safe location.
If the gas is escaping in large quantities and has been ignited, immediately apply large quantities of water to all surfaces in the form of a jet, spray or fog.
If the only valve which can be used to stop the flow of gas is involved in the fire, consider the possibility of effecting the shut-off by approaching the valve behind a water spray. This approach should be made at right angles to the flame and the spray used to reduce the intensity of the flame but not to extinguish it.
Portable LPG cylinders should be removed to a safe location.
If you feel the situation is not under control of you, call experts or call Fire Department immediately.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WITH REGARD TO FIRE
Outdoor Fire Safety Rules for Scouts
By Michael Kozlowski, eHow Contributor
A large part of scouting is going on camping trips, and there are few things as pleasant during a camping trip as sitting by a fire, telling stories, roasting marshmallows, and enjoying the warmth and glow of the flames. However, to fully enjoy this experience and to ensure that you do not lose control of the fire, you need to observe some basic fire safety rules. By building, tending and extinguishing a fire safely, you can ensure that you are upholding your promise as a scout to treat nature with respect.
Location
Whether in a remote area or within the confines of a scout camp, where fire pits may already be on-site, you need to ensure that the location of the fire is suitable. Remove all burnable debris, twigs and leaves in a 10-foot diameter circle from the spot where you plan to build your fire. This will help to ensure that the fire cannot spread easily. Make certain you do not build the fire in an area with overhanging branches or old stumps nearby. Be sure to have water and a shovel nearby so that you can extinguish the fire quickly if necessary.
Building a Fire
The fire-making process should be supervised by the scout leader. A fire does not have to be large to provide warmth. A good bed of coals and some stones surrounding the fire will produce plenty of heat. Use small twigs and leaves to start the fire and add bigger pieces of wood as the fire grows. Point the largest pieces of wood toward the center of the fire and push them inward as they burn.
Keep any additional wood stacked a safe distance from the fire. Even small gusts of wind can cause a fire to spread. Never run or play around a fire. You must always remember the potential harm that fire can cause and treat it respectfully. Never leave a fire unattended.
Extinguishing the Fire
Use plenty of water to douse the fire. Use a shovel to stir the coals so that you can be certain there are no remaining embers. Mix in dirt with the water and stir the embers some more. Repeat this process until you can safely touch the remnants of the fire with your bare hands. Be sure to clean the area around the campfire and leave the site ready for others to enjoy. Scouts should always remember that the goal is to leave a natural area as if you had never been there.
THROWING A LIFELINE
THROWING A LIFELINE
Be able to throw a life line with reasonable accuracy.
All Scout camp and other Scout “swimming holes”, should, like public
swimming pools, be equipped with a life line and lifebuoy, hanging on the pegs
of a conveniently placed post; and Scout
Be Prepared
-ness should includethe ability to throw these.
Life lines usually are of half-inch hemp or manila rope, the length depending
upon the distance concerned.
The Test
.-For this test a rope between 30 and 50 feet in length should beused; and the thrower should place the bowline loop within grasping reach of
the “person in difficulty” four times out of five; any kink spoiling a throw.
The line always should be pliable and free of kinks. To assure this, and
whether kept coiled on a peg or otherwise, the line should regularly be taken
down and thrown a few times, then carefully re-coiled.
Life lines at public swimming pools sometimes have a weighted end, for
throwing. These, however, can be dangerous in the hands of an inexpert rescuer.
It is safer to make a bowline in one end of the line, with the advantage
that this loop can be grasped readily by the person being rescued, and probably
drawn over his head and shoulder, which makes his rescue sure.
Coiling a Life Line
.-It is most important that a life line be properlycoiled. To do this (having first made a bowline), hold the bowline in the left
hand, as the first coil. Now, with a twisting overhand movement (to equalize
kink tendency when thrown), add turn against turn until completed.
Now turn the coil completely around, so that the bowline is in the right
hand, and divide it, holding two thirds in the right hand, the balance in the
left, the end securely gripped, or better yet, tied to a post or tree.
Throwing
.-With a single, long under-arm swing (no whirling about thehead), heave the coil, aiming at a point directly beyond the person in difficulty-
unless there is a current to allow for-at the same time opening the left hand
to allow that portion of the line to run free. (For a left-handed Scout the procedure
would be reversed.)
After Use
.-Dry line before re-coiling.
New Rope
.-A new rope will require stretching. This may be done by tyingit at a “reaching” height between two suitably spaced trees, then hanging on
it. As it stretches it is tightened, until the stretch limit has been reached.
ANIMAL BITES
Animal bites
Overview
Domestic pets cause more bites
Dogs more likely to bite, cats more infectious
Risk of rabies with non-immunized pets / stray / wild animals
Raccoons, skunks, foxes, bats too carry rabies
Symptoms
Skin break
Bruise / puncture
Cuts
Bleeding
Swelling and redness of the area
Oozing of fluid
Treatment
Calm the affected person
Wash hands before attending to wound
Wash wound with soap & running water
Apply antibiotic ointment
Dress using sterile bandage
After first aid, medical treatment must be sought quickly
Suturing may be required
Tetanus booster / antibiotics required
Treatment depends on type / location of wound
Prevention
Avoid keeping wild animals as pets
Choose a pet that is friendly to children
Train the pet to obey commands
Vaccinate your pet
When children are around, pets supervision is required
Avoid leaving infants alone with pets
INSECT BITES AND STINGS
INSECT BITES AND STINGS
Overview
Insect bites are, mostly, not severe
Sometimes they cause a severe allergic reaction, anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis is life-threatening if not treated on time
Sting of bees, wasps, hornets / bite of fire ants, painful
Bites of insects, like mosquitoes, cause itching
The bite of a black widow spider can be fatal, if left untreated
Causes Examples of biting insects
Mosquitoes
Fleas
Mites
Spiders
Examples of stinging insect
Bees
Wasps
Hornets
Symptoms
Localized Pain
Swelling
Redness
Itching
Numbness
Burning
Tingling sensation
Breathlessness
Weakness
Treatment
Remove the stinger using a straight- edged object
Wash the area thoroughly with soap and water
Place ice wrapped in a cloth on the affected area
Repeat after every 10 minutes
Apply a gentle cream to prevent itching
Take anti histamines if necessary
Observe for signs of infection like pain, redness or swelling
In case of emergency-
Try to keep the person calm
Check the person’s breathing
Remove constricting items, like rings, from finger/nose/ears
Do Cardio Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR), if necessary
If the person is carrying an emergency kit, use it
If required, treat the person for signs of shock
Seek medical help as soon as possible
Consult a Doctor In case of the following, seek medical help
Wheezing
Swelling on the face
Difficulty in breathing
Tight feeling in the throat
Body turning blue
Steps to Avoid
Do not remove the stinger using a tweezer
Do not apply a tourniquet
Aspirin, pain medications, should not be given unless advised by a doctor
Prevention
Avoid placing hand near the mouth of a seizure-affected person
Take caution to prevent your child from developing biting habit
BURNS AND SCALDS
BURNS AND SCALDS
Burns are caused by dry heat, corrosive substances and friction. Scalds are caused by wet heat – hot liquids and vapours. Burns can also be produced by extreme cold, and by radiation, including the sun’s rays. Burns may be related to, or a result of, a more life-threatening situation. Fires may be started accidentally by victims of drug or alcohol overdose. An explosion, or jumping from a burning building, may cause other serious injuries. When burns have been treated, the casualty should be thoroughly examined.
Assessing a Burn
There are a number of factors to consider when assessing the severity of a burn and the method of treatment, including the cause of the burn, whether the airway is involved, the depth of the burn, and its extent.
The extent of the burn will indicate whether shock is likely to develop, as tissue fluid (serum) leaks from the burned area and is replenished by fluids from the circulatory system. The greater the extent of the burn, the more severe the shock will be. The cause of the burn may also signal any other possible complications. Burns also carry a serious risk of infection, which increases according to the size and depth of the burn. The body’s natural barrier, the skin, is destroyed by burning, leaving it exposed to germs.
Depth of Burns
Burns can be categorised as follows:
Superficial burns
These involve only the outer layer of the skin, and are characterised by redness, swelling and tenderness. Typical examples are mild sunburn, or a scald produced by a splash of hot tea or coffee. Superficial burns usually heal well if prompt first aid is given, and do not require medical treatment unless extensive.
Partial-thickness Burns
These damage a ‘partial thickness’ of the skin, and require medical treatment. The skin looks raw, and blisters form. These burns usually heal well, but can be serious, if extensive. In adults, partial-thickness burns affecting more than 50% of the body’s surface can be fatal. This percentage is less in children and the elderly.
Full-thickness Burns
These damage all layers of the skin. Damage may extend beyond the skin to affect nerves, muscle and fat. The skin may look pale, waxy, and sometimes charred. Full-thickness burns of any size always require immediate medical attention, and usually require specialist treatment.
Extent of Burns
The area of a burn gives an approximate indication of the degree of shock that will develop and, in conjunction with depth, can be used as a guide to the required level of treatment. The ‘rules of nine’ is a guide used to calculate the extent of a burn as a percentage of the body’s total surface area, and to assess what level of medical attention is required.
In an otherwise healthy adult:
Any partial-thickness burn of 1% or more (an area approximating to that of the casualty’s hand) must be seen by a medical practitioner.
A partial-thickness burn of 9% or more will cause shock to develop, and the casualty will require hospital treatment.
A full-thickness burn of any size requires hospital treatment.
Severe Burns and Scalds
The priority is to cool the injury; the longer the burning goes unchecked, the more severely the casualty will be injured. Resuscitate the casualty only when cooling is underway. All severe burns carry the danger of shock.
Treatment of Severe Burns and Scalds
DO NOT overcool the casualty; this may dangerously lower the body temperature.
DO NOT remove anything sticking to the burn; this may cause further damage and cause infection.
DO NOT touch or interfere with the injured area.
DO NOT burst blisters.
DO NOT apply lotions, ointment, or fat to the injury.
Lay the casualty down, protecting the burned area from contact with the ground, if possible.
Douse the burn with copious amounts of cold liquid. Thorough cooling may take 10 minutes or more, but this must not delay the casualty’s transmission to hospital.
While cooling the burns, check airway, breathing, and pulse, and be prepared to resuscitate.
Gently remove any rings, watches, belts, shoes, or smouldering clothing from the injured area, before it starts to swell. Carefully remove burned clothing unless it is sticking to the burn.
Cover the injury with a sterile burns sheet or other suitable non-fluffy material, to protect from infection. A clean plastic bag or kitchen film may be used. Burns to the face should be cooled with water, not covered.
Ensure that the emergency service is on its way. While waiting, treat the casualty for shock. Monitor and record breathing and pulse, and resuscitate, if necessary.
Burns to the Mouth and Throat
Burns to the face, and burns in the mouth or throat are very dangerous, as they cause rapid swelling and inflammation of the air passages. The swelling will rapidly block the airway, giving rise to a serious risk of suffocation. Immediate and highly specialised medical assistance is required.
Treatment of Burns to the Mouth and Throat
Contact the emergency service. Report suspected burns to the airway.
Take any steps to improve the casualty’s air supply, e.g., loosening clothing around the neck. Give the casualty oxygen if you are trained to do so.
If the casualty becomes unconscious, place in the recovery position, and be prepared to resuscitate.
Minor Burns and Scalds
Minor burns and scalds are usually the result of domestic accidents. Prompt first aid will generally enable them to heal naturally and well, but the advice of a medical practitioner should be sought if there is doubt as to the severity of the injury.
Treatment of Minor Burns and Scalds
DO NOT use adhesive dressings.
DO NOT break blisters, or interfere with the injured area.
DO NOT apply lotions, ointments, creams, or fats to the injured area.
Cool the injured part with copious amounts of cold water for about 10 minutes to stop the burning and relieve the pain. If water is unavailable, any cold, harmless liquid such as milk or canned drinks will suffice.
Gently remove any jewellery, watches, or constricting clothing from the injured area before it starts to swell.
Cover the injury with a sterile dressing, or any clean, non-fluffy material to protect from infection. A clean plastic bag or kitchen film may be used
SPRAINS
Sprain is the stretch/tear of ligament connecting ones
Occurs in both the upper & lower part of the body
Most common sites – ankle/wrists/knee
Causes
Trauma/accidents
Lifting heavy objects
Sporting injuries
Symptoms
Pain
Swelling
Lumps other than swelling
Bruising/redness at site of injury
Numbness
Inability to move the joint
Treatment
Apply a cold compress to injured area for 20 min
This may be done 4-8 times a day
Use a plastic bag with crushed ice, wrapped in a towel
Use compression bandages to reduce swelling
Keep the injured leg elevated on a pillow
Take anti inflammatory pills if necessary
Take rest for the recommended period
When pain/swelling is diminished, do recommended exercises
Consult a doctor If the following occurs-
Severe pain/numbness
Inability to move the joint
Inability to assess the severity of injury
Steps To Avoid
Do not return to normal activities if not completely cured
This could lead to the problem turning chronic
Prevention
Avoid exercising/sporting when tired
Eat a well balanced meal-for healthy muscles
Avoid unhealthy weight gain
Exercise daily-particularly stretching exercises
Do warm-up before exercising
Practice safety measures, like avoiding clutter
Run on even surface
Do not wear ill-fitting shoes
BLEEDING FROM NOSE
BLEEDING FROM NOSE
Overview • A nose bleed occurs when a small vein, along the lining of nose, bursts • Most nosebleeds look scary, but are harmless • Can be treated at home • Common in children/elderly
Causes • Dryness • Nose picking • Blowing nose with force • Use of medications, like aspirin • Introducing objects into nose (mostly children) • Injuries • Allergies • Infections • High BP • Atherosclerosis • Blood-clotting disorders • Use of cocaine Symptoms •
Bleeding from nose • Sometimes bleeding from ears/mouth too Types a. Anterior Nosebleed • Affects lower part of wall that separates nostrils • The wall or septum contains blood vessels • These can be broken by blow to nose/fingernail • The bleeding starts from front of nose • It flows outward when patient is sitting/standing • Occurs during dry season/harsh winter b. Posterior Nosebleed • The bleeding starts deep within the nose • It flows down the back of the mouth & throat • This happens even when the person is sitting/standing • Occurs in old people/those with high BP/injuries • This type of bleeding is severe/ requires medical help
Treatment • If your nose bleeds, • Sit down and lean forward • Using your thumb & index finger, squeeze soft part of nose • This part is between end of nose and the bridge of nose • Continue holding till bleeding stops- • Do not stop in-between • If bleeding continues, hold for another 10 minutes • If the patient is a child, divert attention by TV/Stories • Avoid picking, blowing or rubbing nose for 2 days • Place an ice pack on the bridge of nose Consult a Doctor If, • The bleeding continues for more than 15 minutes • The bleeding is caused by an injury • You get nosebleeds often
Prevention • Keep fingernails short • Quit smoking • Open your mouth while sneezing • Use a humidifier at night in case of dry weather Read more: Nose Bleed – First Aid and Emergency
HITCHES
MARLINE SPIKE HITCH
MARLINE SPIKE HITCH
MARLINE SPIKE HITCH 01
MARLINE SPIKE HITCH 02
figure of eight knot
Figure of Eight knot, Flemish knot, Savoy knot
A useful “Stop” knot to temporarily bulk out the end of a rope or cord, the finished knot looks like its name. It is superior to using a Thumb Knot, because it does not jam so easily.
Tip: The Figure of Eight is useful to temporarily stop the ends of a rope fraying, before it is whipped.
rolling hitch
One of the most underated knots in Scouting and Guiding, the Rolling hitch is used to attach one rope to a second, in such a manner that the first rope can be easily slid along the second.
The knot can be considered a Clove hitch with an additional turn.
When tension is applied and the ropes form a straight line, the rolling hitch will lock onto the first rope. When the tension is released, the hitch can be loosened and slid along the first rope to a new location.
The tension must be applied on the side of the knot with the extra turn.
Tip. Use this knot if you have a guy rope with no adjuster. Create a loop on the end of a second rope which is slipped over the peg. Use a rolling hitch to attach the second rope to the guyline. Alternatively, take the guyline around the peg and tie the Rolling hitch back onto the standing part of the guyline, above the peg, thus forming an adjustable loop. This is known as the Tautline Hitch in America.
Tip. Use this knot when constructing camp gadgets such as a suspended table. A Rolling hitch in each suspension rope will allow easy adjustment and a level table!
Tip. When adjustments are complete, lock the rolling hitch into place by using a stop knot such as a Figure of Eight in the first rope, below the Rolling hitch, to stop it slipping.
timer hitch
As well as being used to start a diagonal lashing, a timber hitch can be used as a temporary knot when you need to drag, tow or lift a log or pole. (see second diagram)
timber hitch
LASHINGS
SQUARE LASHING
SQUARE LASHING
Square lashings are used to bind together two spars that are at right angles with one another.
i) Place the poles on the ground in the shape of a cross. Tie a clove hitch around the bottom pole near the crosspiece. Twist the free end of the rope around its standing part and tuck it out of the way.
ii) Make three or four wraps around the spars, keeping the rope very tight. As you form the wraps, lay the rope on the outside of each previous turn around the crosspiece, and on the inside of each previous turn around the bottom pole.
iii) Then wind three or four frapping turns around the wrapping to tighten the lashing as much as you can.
iv) Finish it off with another clove hitch.
sheer lashing
For sheer legs, where the spars are opened to form an inverted ‘V’.
Line up the ends of the spars
Start with a timber hitch or clove hitch round one spar
Continue with 8 to 10 turns round both spars – these turns should be neat and firm but not too tight.
Do three frapping turns and finish with a clove hitch on the second spar (a) and (b).
The lashing tightens as the sheer legs are opened which is why the first turns round the spars should not be too tight or it will not be possible to open the legs as required (c).
sheer lashing
Introduction
A sheer lashing is often sued to bind adjacent poles together. It is also a good way to reinforce a broken or weak pole. The frapping turns used to tighten the lashing may be omitted and replaced with wedges inserted between the poles.
A loose Sheer Lashing made around the ends of two poles will allow the poles to be opened out and used as an A-frame. It can also be used to form a tripod just like the Figure-of-eight lashing.
Step by Step Guide
Lay out the poles. For most lashings you will want to lay the poles side by side with the butt ends aligned (thicker ends).
Tie a clove hitch around one of the outside poles and secure the standing part by wrapping it around the running part (or trap it under the first turns).
Note: If you only lashing two poles together or are using the lashing to ‘extend’ a pole it may be better to simply tie the clove hitch around both poles and pull tight. Be sure to leave a long end on the Clove Hitch for the last step.
Pass the rope around the poles to form a first turn.
Pulling each turn tight made a series of turns until the lashing is at least as long as the combined diameters of the two poles (usually a set of 4 to 6 turns will be sufficient).
Tighten the lashing with a frapping turn by taking the rope down between two poles at one end of the turns. This should be difficult to do if the turns have been pulled tightly (as they should be). Bring the rope back up between the poles at the other end of the lashing and pull tight. Repeat 2 or 3 times.
Start the second set of frapping turns by taking the rope around the centre pole and frapping. Take the second set of frapping turns in the opposite direction to the first set.
Repeat for any additional poles.
Pass the rope once more between the poles then around one pole and tuck it under itself to form a half hitch. Pull this tight and make a second half hitch forming a clove hitch by taking the rope around the same pole and tucking it under itself.
Once the final Clove Hitch is tied be sure to leave a ‘long end’.
sheer lashing
parallel or round lashing
For joining two spars to increase the overall length eg when making a flag pole –
It is important to have a good overlap of spars – between a quarter and a third of their length.
Start with a clove hitch or timber hitch round one of the spars near the end of the overlap.
Wrap the rope neatly and tightly round both spars for 8 – 10 turns (a)
Finish with a clove hitch round the second spar
Add a second lashing at the other end of the overlap so that no movement is possible (b)
To tighten further, add small wedges between the spars next to the lashings
parallel lashing
square lashing
Introduction
A Square Lashing is used to hold two poles that cross each other (usually at a 90-degree angle although not necessarily). If the angle of contact is less than 45 degrees a sheer lashing should be used.
It can also be used where the load on one pole may cause it to slip over the other.
It is important to note that there should be no tendency for the poles to slip apart. If the force tends to separate the poles only the rope will be supporting the load.
To make this lashing as tight as possible it is important to tighten each turn as it is made. Frapping turns stabilize the lashing and tighten it further.
When tying a square lashing, the poles and the rope must be positioned properly to achieve the maximum strength. The cross pole should be positioned so that the force applied to the cross pole is directed toward the pole it is lashed to. This allows the contact between the wood to take part of the load.
Step by Step Guide
Tie a clove hitch.
The beginning clove hitch should be tied to the pole that is in line with the direction of the force and to the side of the cross pole that is opposite to the direction of the force applied. (For example, in most cases the force applied will be gravity and so the beginning clove hitch should be tied to the vertical pole and under the cross pole.)
The standing end of the rope (the bit left over so to speak) is secured by wrapping it around the running end (the bit that you use to tie the lashing). This will secure the clove hitch so that it will not slip around the pole and loosen the lashing from the inside.
Note: This is not always done. If you leave this step out ensure that when you do step 3 the clove hitch slips to one side and is securely held by the ‘pull’ of the rope in the turns. Alternatively it is recommended that you leave a ‘long end’ on the clove hitch to be used in the last step.
Wind the rope alternately behind then in front of the next two sections of the pole.
Pull on the rope to tighten it around the poles.
Take the rope over the lower part of the vertical pole and then under the next section of the horizontal pole to complete the first lashing turn. Pull the rope tight.
Complete two or three more turns to make a total of three or four turns altogether.
Note: When the turns are taken around the vertical pole they should be inside the previous turns. The ones around the cross pole should be on the outside of the previous turns. This makes sure that the turns remain parallel and hence the maximum contact between the rope and wood is maintained.
Tighten the lashing with a frapping turn by bringing the rope down over the front of the horizontal pole and behind the lower vertical pole. Pull the frapping turn tight.
Note: Try to make sure that the frapping turn does not begin by crossing the wrapping turns diagonally. Go around the cross pole (as if you were going to do a half-hitch) and then into the frapping turns. Otherwise the increased friction will make it harder to pull the wrapping turns tight and if not tied correctly the diagonal across the wrapping turns will allow the rope to move unnecessarily.
Make about three full frapping turns around the poles.
When you have finished the frapping make a half hitch around the cross pole. Tuck it under itself and pull it tight. Tie a second half hitch to form a Clove Hitch.
Note: This step should be done carefully so that no tension is lost in the lashing and so that the clove hitch can not slip around the pole allowing the lashing to loosen. If you need to trim any excess rope and tuck the long end under the lashing.
Once the final Clove Hitch is tied be sure to leave a ‘long end’.
Now tie a secure Reef Knot with the ends of the starting and finishing Clove Hitches. This should lie tightly across the lashing and should ensure that neither Clove Hitch works loose
square lashing
diagonal lashing
Introduction
A Diagonal Lashing is used to bind two poles together that cross each other but do not touch (or are likely to be pulled apart) when their ends are lashed in place in a structure. Often used for securing diagonal braces used to hold a structure rigid.
When wooden poles are used in a lattice like structure a combination of Diagonal and Square lashings is used to hold them together.
The Diagonal Lashing can be used to bind poles that cross at an angle of between 90 to 45 degrees. If the angle between the poles is less than 45 degrees a sheer lashing should be used.
Note: If a square lashing was used to bind poles that do not touch the beginning clove hitch would pull the cross pole towards it causing unnecessary bowing of the cross pole and could also produce a force that would act along the length of the pole to which the clove hitch is tied. This could place unnecessary strain on other lashings and cause the structure to twist and fail.
Step by Step Guide
Tie a Timber Hitch horizontally around two poles crossed diagonally. Pull tight. Take the working end around to the back of poles ready for the first turn.
Start the wrapping turns on the opposite diagonal to the timber hitch. Pull the rope tight so that the poles contact each other. Make three full horizontal turns around both poles and over the Timber Hitch. Pull each turn tight as it is made.
Change the direction of the turns by taking the rope behindhe poles a the bottom of the lashing then to the front of the poles at the top. Try to go around the pole when changing direction to avoid crossing the first set of wrappings diagonally.
Make three vertical wrapping turns around the crossed poles tightening each turn before making the next one. Be sure to keep them parallel.
Tighten the lashing with a frapping turn by going past and around one of the poles and then threading the rope alternately behind then in front of each pole. This will help to secure the lashing.
Make two more frapping turns, pulling each one tight as it is completed.
End the lashing with a clove hitch by taking the first half hitch of the clove hitch by going past and then around one of the poles. Lock the half hitch tight against the lashing by working it tight and pulling it from below.
Take a second half hitch around the pole and work it tight against the first so that the clove hitch is locked tight against the lashing.
diagonal lashing
SIGNALLING
MORSE CODE
In the Morse Code letters are formed by a series of dots and dashes by using a Morse Key attached to a buzzer. Because of its adaptability, Morse Code is more useful than Semaphore, but it requires much practice to become proficient.
Morse Code signals and their meaning:
VE VE VE Calling up signal
K Carry On. (Answer to VE, if ready to receive message)
Q Wait. (Answer to VE if not ready to receive message.)
T General answer
AAA Period or decimal
AR End of message
R Message received correctly
8 dots Erase.
GB Good Bye. (used when closing down)
MORSE CODE - ALPHABETS
SEMAPHORE SIGNALING
Semaphore signaling is used mainly for short distance communications.
SEMAPHORE SIGNALS BY FLAG
Some points to remember: