Eclecticism
Exotic Journeys: A Tourist's Guide to Philosophy
brought to you by Ron Yezzi
Emeritus Professor of Philosophy
Minnesota State University, Mankato
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Eclecticism
Eclecticism is a rather ugly looking word for a fairly common practice: Rather than approaching philosophical problems from one systematic point of view, you borrow whatever is worthwhile from several points of view.
At the positive extreme, eclecticism allows us to select the best parts from all the possible worlds of philosophy instead of presuming that there has to be just one correct philosophical system.
At the negative extreme, it produces an incoherent, poorly thought out mish-mash of incompatible views. As such, it exhibits a superficial, amateurish approach to philosophy.
Eclecticism in the ancient world is most strongly associated with the Roman statesman and philosopher, Marcus Tullius Cicero.
Cicero (106 - 43 B.C.E.)
Cicero studied philosophy as a young man and then retired to philosophical writing as an older man, when his political standing had fallen upon hard times. Unlike Socrates, his being a philosopher did not lead to his death. Yet his turn to philosophy also failed to save him. For political reasons he was killed, with his head and hands then being cut off and sent to Rome.
Topics
What's Impressivel About Cicero
Life and Savory Info
Philosophical Writings
Philosophy
Some Other Sources
What's Impressive About Cicero
By producing philosophical works in Latin (often by transcribing Greek sources), Cicero introduced Latin terminology for some basic philosophical terms and made philosophy more accessible to the Romans.
Because so many of his writings have survived, Cicero's transcribing and recounting Greek philosophy has become a valuable source for details about ancient philosophy.
His preference for a mixed form of government―combining monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy―became a model for later political thinkers.
Life and Savory Info
Marcus Tullius Cicero came from a well-off family and received an excellent education. At one point, he went to Athens, where he studied philosophy.
He came to prominence in Rome as a lawyer with great oratorical skill. He then took on various political positions, culminating in his election to the consulship in 63 B.C.E. His most notable act as consul was the putting down of the conspiracy of Catiline, who had run unsuccessfully for the consulship against Cicero and then hatched a plot to gain the consulship by force. Cicero had most of the conspirators executed and claimed to have saved the state. Because the executions had not observed a legal technicality however, Cicero was sent into exile in 58 B.C.E.
He was able to return to Rome the following year; but he never again regained his previous political power. Cicero sided with the Senate and preservation of the Roman republic at a time when the Empire was moving toward one-person rule. In the civil war for rule between Pompey and Julius Caesar, he usually sided with Pompey, the eventual loser. Although Caesar forgave him and he did not participate in Caesar’s assassination, there was never any high degree of trust and respect between Cicero and Caesar or Caesar’s followers. In particular, Cicero and Mark Anthony were bitter enemies; and Antony eventually received permission from Octavian to execute Cicero in 43 B.C.E.
Antony accused Cicero of malfeasance in office, participation in Caesar’s assassination, and betrayal of trust. Cicero responded with a series of orations (called the “Philippics”) defending himself against the accusations but then charging Antony first with personal and public corruption (drunkenness, licentiousness, debauchery, impurity, bribery, and thievery) and later with being an enemy of the Republic. In the short run, the sword proved mightier than Cicero’s words. Antony’s soldiers executed Cicero and sent his severed head and hands to Rome, where Antony proceeded to have them placed on the rostrum from which Cicero had delivered orations.
Cicero’s philosophical writings coincide with his political decline, being written roughly from 54 to the time of this death.
(from a bust in the Vatican Museums in Rome)
Philosophical Writings
Bursting with Roman pride and personal self-assurance, Cicero set out to develop a comprehensive collection of philosophical works written in Latin, thereby eliminating the need for his fellow Romans to learn the Greek language in order to read Greek philosophers. Amazingly, he produced the bulk of these works during the last two years of his life, often writing from morning until night.
He focused upon moral and political issues primarily.
On the Republic (written 54-51 B.C.E.) dealt with the nature of the state, with Cicero producing a dialogue to update and replace Plato’s Republic. His chief thesis called for a combination of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy in the constitution of the state. He followed this work with another political work, On the Laws (written in 51 and 46 B.C.E., but never finished) that dealt with (a) universal justice as the basis for law, (b) laws and religion, and (c) codes for magistrates.
During his prodigious writing in 45-44 B.C.E., he wrote two works on theology (On the Nature of the Gods and On Divination), a work on free will (On Fate), a work on the theory of knowledge (Academics), five works on ethics (On the Chief Ends of Good and Evil, Tusculan Disputations, On Duty, “On Friendship,” and “On Old Age”), plus several other works that have been mainly lost or are considered of lesser importance. On the Chief Ends of Good and Evil dealt with the ultimate goals of life. On Duty, written for his son, dealt with the duties of life. And Tusculan Disputations dealt with death, pain, peace of mind, and the virtuous life.
Given the quantity of writings produced (and that survived), we might expect Cicero to have a major place in the history of ancient philosophy. Yet he tends pretty much to be overlooked―because there is a downside to his philosophical writings.
As an eclectic, Cicero mainly hovered back and forth between Stoicism and Skepticism (Carneades’ Skepticism, in particular), while also expressing admiration for Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. So he was embracing a variety of philosophical positions, reserving disdain only for Epicureanism. Consequently, he never established his own school of philosophy and never attracted a band of followers.
There is a hurriedness to his writings, whereby he frequently just transcribes ancient authorities and tends to overwhelm readers with an extensive scattering of examples. He often seems more interested in acquainting readers with what philosophers have said and in impressing them with the breadth of his knowledge rather than establishing careful solutions to philosophical problems. (In On the Nature of the Gods, Cicero defends his not presenting his own positions by claiming that he wants readers to rely on reason for their judgments rather than on his authority. This defense though seems pretty shaky: If he had presented his own reasoned solutions to problems, we would be able to evaluate hisreasoning rather than relying upon his authority.)
Even with respect to his writing about other philosophers, students of ancient philosophy probably find original writings or other accounts that take precedence before Cicero’s work. In some cases, he writes about more obscure philosophers. So, unless you happen to be a scholar especially interested in philosophers such as Posidonius, Panaetius, and Antiochus of Ascalon, you may not find Cicero all that relevant or useful. (It happens however that Cicero is a very good source for scholars seeking details about ancient philosophy.)
Cicero wrote in dialogue form. But his work lacks the structure, philosophical depth, and dramatic liveliness of many of Plato’s dialogues. So his dialogues look like pale imitations of a greater master.
Because of his political stature, political oratory, and noble sentiments about laws and justice, Cicero’s writings probably have greater appeal to political figures than to philosophers. For example, Cicero was a great hero to U.S. President John Adams. In the words of biographer David McCullough, “In all history, he [Adams] declared, there was no greater philosopher and statesman than Cicero, whose authority should ever carry great weight, and Cicero’s decided opinion in favor of the three branches of government was founded on a reason that was timeless, unchangeable.” And Cicero turns up in a 2003 New York Times Book Review, as follows, "The founding fathers, Posner says, did not want to set up a democracy but a mixed government. That is in fact what they created -- with monarchical elements in the presidency, aristocratic elements in the Senate and Supreme Court and democratic elements in the lower house. The whole thing was intended to be a balance of interests in the way Cicero said successful republics must be."
Despite my Italian descent and my awe at the range of his political and intellectual accomplishments, I must confess to not being a Cicero enthusiast. I just find greater satisfaction and relevance in other authors, such that I tend to pass him by.
Fortunately however, Cicero has a real champion in Paul MacKendrick’s The Philosophical Books of Cicero (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989). MacKendrick provides very useful outline-summaries and commentary on all of Cicero’s philosophical works that have survived, offers an appreciative interpretation of Cicero’s contributions, and discusses his subsequent historical influence. So interested readers who want to circumvent my own listlessness can turn to MacKendrick.
Philosophy
Cicero’s own philosophy often has to be inferred from his writings, often by considering who gets the last position statement in his dialogues.
In judging the truth of statements, Cicero embraced the skepticism of Carneades―denying certainty but granting that some statements are probable enough to be relied upon. As a practical man concerned primarily with moral and political matters, he found the probability interpretation suitable for practical life. As a lawyer, he also appreciated the way skeptics could argue both sides of a case, much like the opposing arguments of lawyers in a court of law.
Theologically, he concludes On the Nature of the Gods with the opinion that the Stoics’ arguments have the most probable conclusions, especially with respect to divine providence. The second book of On Divination however presents arguments that raise strong doubts about claims to foretell the future based upon some special relationship to the gods. And his acceptance of divine providence did not extend all the way to a chain of necessary causes that explains all human actions as instances of fate. He wanted to preserve some notion of free will, and with it, moral responsibility.
In ethics, Cicero expresses numerous noble sentiments. He advocates the study of philosophy as a path to wisdom. We should strive to live a virtuous life that allows us to avoid the fear of death and states of anxiety. We should have a passion for justice and for serving the common good of the state. He warns against the excessive pursuit of honors and riches that leads to injustice.
I especially recommend On Duty (also translated as The Offices), where Cicero lays out a practical manual of virtuous living for his son. It is a work that reflects well his moral insights about life, without leaving readers wondering whether long accounts of other ancient ethical positions are necessary or whether he wants to impress them with the breadth of his knowledge. What it may lack in philosophical rigor is made up for in the sincerity of its moral advice.
Some Other Sources
Anthony Everitt, Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome’s Greatest Politician (New York: Random House, 2001), a general biography.
Stephen A. White, "Cicero, Marcus Tullius," in Edward Craig, ed., Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 355-360.
P. H. DeLacy, “Marcus Tullius Cicero,” in Paul Edwards, ed., Encyclopedia of Philosophy (New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1967), Vol. 2, pp. 113-114.
Albert Curtis Clark, “Cicero,” Encyclopedia Britannica (New York: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1910), Eleventh ed., Vol. VI, pp. 353-359.
Translations of Cicero’s works are available in The Loeb Classical Library, published by Harvard University Press.
The quote from David McCullough regarding John Adams comes from David McCullough, John Adams (New York: Simon & Shuster, 2001), p. 375.
The reference to the New York Times Book Review comes from Alan Ryan, "Review of Law, Pragmatism, and Democracy by Richard A. Posner" (New York Times Book Review, September 13, 2003)