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This assignment requires students to create cooperative learning projects to can activate student learning and role accountability. Choose activities [here] as a group project that address multiple content areas to place in Livetext . Relate how you would use these. If possible, develop a rubric or assessment tool.
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i.e., making a new association between events in the environment. There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning. [Khan video]
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Pavlov’s Dogs
In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled “psychic reflexes.” While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.
Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding.
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In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food. [video]
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Behaviorism as a movement in psychology appeared in 1913 when John Broadus Watson published the classic article 'Psychology as the behaviorist views it'. John Watson proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations) was able to explain all aspects of human psychology.
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Classical conditioning theory involves learning a new behavior via the process of association. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. There are three stages to classical conditioning. In each stage the stimuli and responses are given special scientific terms:
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Stage 1: Before Conditioning:
In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an organism. In basic terms this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior / response which is unlearned (i.e. unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not been taught. In this respect no new behavior has been learned yet.
This stage also involves another stimulus which has no affect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place etc. The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
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Stage 2: During Conditioning:
During this stage a stimulus which produces no response (i.e. neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).
Often during this stage the UCS must be associated with the CS on a number of occasions, or trials, for learning to take place. However, one trail learning can happen on certain occasions when it is not necessary for an association to be strengthened over time (such as being sick after food poisoning or drinking too much alcohol).
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Stage 3: After Conditioning:
Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create a new conditioned response (CR).
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John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings. In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watson’s experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans.
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An example of how classical conditioning has been applied to understanding children's behaviour is found in the work of American psychologist John B. Watson (1878–1958). Watson gave the behaviourist school its name in his publication ‘Psychology as the behaviourist views it’ (1913). His belief in the power of the environment to influence development led him to make the following statement:
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. (Watson, 1924, p. 104)
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This reflects the behaviourist viewpoint that not only can behaviour be explained by examining the environment, but that by changing the environment the person's behaviour can be altered.
Watson's particular interest was the study of emotions. Together with Rayner he conducted an experiment into the conditioning of fear with an 11-month-old infant Albert B., more commonly known as ‘Little Albert’ (Watson, 1924).
When initially presented with a white rat, Albert showed no fear. Subsequently, the rat was shown to him four times. Each time a metal bar was ‘clanged’ behind Albert's head. On the fifth presentation the rat was shown but without the noisy ‘clang’. Although there was no noise, Albert still whimpered and moved away. He had learned to associate fear with the presence of rats through the process of classical conditioning. This response generalised to other previously neutral stimuli that were similar to the rat and which he previously had liked. He now also showed fear of furry toys, a fur coat and a Father Christmas mask. (Generalisation is when other neutral stimuli are sufficiently similar to a conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response.) It should be noted that this study pre-dated ethical concerns about the potential of research to impact negatively on an individual's well-being.
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The ethical implications of this type of study need careful consideration. Today any work carried out by psychologists must follow a professional ethical code, for example the British Psychological Society (BPS) ethical principles. It is unlikely that the ‘Little Albert’ experiment would be carried out nowadays.
Classical conditioning can only be used to re-train reflex behaviours (like crying when frightened or salivating when smelling food) and lead the individual to produce them in response to a new environmental stimulus. (Reflex is an instinctive, uncontrolled reaction to a given stimulus, such as salivating when presented with food.) However, what if a behaviourist needed a child to produce a response that was not a part of his or her repertoire of reflex behaviours? In this instance, operant conditioning would be used.
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Classical Conditioning in the Classroom
The implications of classical conditioning in the classroom are less important than those of operant conditioning, but there is a still need for teachers to try to make sure that students associate positive emotional experiences with learning. If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school then this can obviously have bad results, such as creating a school phobia.
For example, if a student is bullied at school they may learn to associate school with fear. It could also explain why some students show a particular dislike of certain subjects that continue throughout their academic career. This could happen if a student is humiliated or punished in class by a teacher.
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References
Jean Piaget
According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of four key stages of cognitive development marked by shifts in how they understand the world. Piaget believed that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively try to explore and make sense of the world around them. Through his observations of his own children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that included four distinct stages: the sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2; the preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7; the concrete operational stage, from age 7 to 11; and the formal operational stage, which begins in adolescence and spans into adulthood.
Sensorimotor: from birth to age 2
Preoperational stage: from ages 2 to 7; students poor at remembering
Concrete operational: from ages 7 to 11 (children begin to think logically but are very concrete in their thinking
Formal operational: from age 11-16 and onwards (development of abstract reasoning
Piaget acknowledged that some children may pass through the stages at different ages than the averages noted above and that some children may show characteristics of more than one stage at a given time. But he insisted that cognitive development always follows this sequence, that stages cannot be skipped, and that each stage is marked by new intellectual abilities and a more complex understanding of the world.
Sensorimotor Stage
During the early stages, infants are only aware of what is immediately in front of them. They focus on what they see, what they are doing, and physical interactions with their immediate environment.
Because they don't yet know how things react, they're constantly experimenting with activities such as shaking or throwing things, putting things in their mouths, and learning about the world through trial and error. The later stages include goal-oriented behavior which brings about a desired result.
At about age 7 to 9 months, infants begin to realize that an object exists even if it can no longer be seen. This important milestone -- known as object permanence -- is a sign that memory is developing.
After infants start crawling, standing, and walking, their increased physical mobility leads to increased cognitive development. Near the end of the sensorimotor stage, infants reach another important milestone -- early language development, a sign that they are developing some symbolic abilities.
Preoperational Stage
During this stage, young children are able to think about things symbolically. Their language use becomes more mature. They also develop memory and imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between past and future, and engage in make-believe.
But their thinking is based on intuition and still not completely logical. They cannot yet grasp more complex concepts such as cause and effect, time, and comparison.
Concrete Operational Stage
At this time, elementary-age and preadolescent children demonstrate logical, concrete reasoning.
Children's thinking becomes less egocentric and they are increasingly aware of external events. They begin to realize that one's own thoughts and feelings are unique and may not be shared by others or may not even be part of reality. Children also develop operational thinking -- the ability to perform reversible mental actions.
During this stage, however, most children still can't tackle a problem with several variables in a systematic way.
Formal Operational Stage
Adolescents who reach this fourth stage of intellectual development are able to logically use symbols related to abstract concepts, such as algebra and science. They can think about multiple variables in systematic ways, formulate hypotheses, and consider possibilities. They also can ponder abstract relationships and concepts such as justice.
Although Piaget believed in lifelong intellectual development, he insisted that the formal operational stage is the final stage of cognitive development, and that continued intellectual development in adults depends on the accumulation of knowledge.
B.F. Skinner
By the 1920's John B. Watson had left academic psychology and other behaviorists were becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical conditioning. Perhaps the most important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons he is more commonly known as B.F. Skinner.
Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson. Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events. Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning was based on the work of Thorndike (1905). Edward Thorndike studied learning in animals using a puzzle box to propose the theory known as the 'Law of Effect'.
Jacob Kounin is known as a classroom management theorist. Around 1946, he began working as an educational psychologist at Wayne State University. Many people believe that Kounin was highly influenced by Glasser, and it can be seen throughout his work. He made people think about the possibility of discipline and instruction being utilized as one. Instead of these two techniques being separate, Kounin explained how you have to incorporate different aspects from each in order to create an effective classroom. By utilizing skills within discipline and instruction, one should be able to manage a classroom according to Kounin's ideas and principles.
Kounin believes that teachers need to be attentive to all aspects of the classroom. He believes that effective teachers keep students attentive and actively involved. After Kounin's research, he realized how teachers handle misbehavior is how they handle their class from the beginning of each school year. One day while Kounin was teaching a class, he told one student to stop reading a newspaper and to pay attention to the lecture. While Kounin only told this one student to get on task, other students who were not on task suddenly put away what they were doing and started listening to the lecture. This effect became known as the "Ripple Effect," which is when one student's behavior is corrected it often influences another student's behavior nearby. Kounin wrote a book, "Discipline and Group Management in Classrooms," to sum up his beliefs about effective and ineffective classroom managers. After research, Kounin came to the conclusion that the key to a successful classroom is not the way a teacher handles misbehavior when it occurs, but instead what teachers do to completely prevent classroom management problems from ever occurring within the classroom at all. Kounin also found that good organization and planning are also keys to effective classroom management while getting students highly involved and also using proactive behavior. Kounin believed that teachers should have good lesson movement in order for teachers to have an effective connection between teaching and classroom management. Kounin described that lesson movement is achieved through the five things as follows: withitness, overlapping, momentum, smoothness, and group focus. The term "withitness" was Kounins word to describe that teachers always know what is going on within his/her classroom. This can be done by scanning the classroom every now and then so students will believe you are always looking at what they are doing.
Some practical ways to apply Kounin's approach in a classroom is basically to follow what Kounin stated to be the five ways to achieve lesson movement. Overlapping can be applied within the classroom by creating a procedure to use when two separate situations happen at nearly the same time. For instance, if a student finishes an assignment early they can read a book, start on another assignment, make a craft, etc. Momentum can be applied within the classroom making lessons short so students have time to work with other students in groups, which will let students elaborate on a certain subject and gain knowledge from other student's connections. Smoothness can be applied within the classroom by constructing certain body language signs at the beginning of the year so students can use these signs during a lesson to notify the teacher if they need help with a certain portion of the lesson so on and so forth. Group focus can be applied within the classroom by always having some sort of group each day so students have time to collaborate with one another.
Assertive discipline is a structured, systematic approach designed to assist educators in running an organized, teacher-in-charge classroom environment. To no one's surprise, Lee and Marlene Canter, when consulting for school systems, found that many teachers were unable to manage the undesirable behavior that occurred in their classrooms. The Cantors, rightfully so, attributed this finding to a lack of training in the area of behavior management. Based on their investigation and the foundations of assertiveness training and applied behavior analysis, they developed a common sense, easy-to-learn approach to help teachers become the captains of their classrooms and positively influence their students' behavior. Today, it is the most widely used "canned" (prepared/packaged) behavior management program in the world. Assertive discipline has evolved since the mid 70's from a rather authoritarian approach to one that is now more democratic and cooperative.
The Cantors believe that you, as the teacher, have the right to determine what is best for your students, and to expect compliance. No pupil should prevent you from teaching, or keep another student from learning. Student compliance is imperative in creating and maintaining an effective and efficient learning environment. To accomplish this goal, teachers must react assertively, as opposed to aggressively or non assertively.
Assertive teachers react confidently and quickly in situations that require the management of student behavior. They are supported by a few clearly stated classroom rules that have been explained, practiced, and enforced consistently. They give firm, clear, concise directions to students who are in need of outside guidance to help them behave appropriately. Students who comply are reinforced, whereas those who disobey rules and directions receive negative consequences. Assertive teachers do not view students as adversaries, nor do they use an abrasive, sarcastic, hostile style (as with "hostile" teachers). Neither do they react in a passive, inconsistent, timid, non-directive manner (as with "non-assertive" teachers).
Assertive teachers believe that a firm, teacher-in-charge classroom is in the best interests of students. They believe that the students wish to have the personal and psychological safety experienced when their teacher is highly competent in directing behavior. The Canters state that society demands appropriate behavior if one is to be accepted and successful. Therefore, no one benefits when a student is allowed to misbehave. The Canters say that teachers show their concern for today's youth when they demand and promote appropriate classroom behavior. Additionally, educators have the right to request and expect assistance from parents and administrators in their efforts. Assertive discipline provides strategies for gaining this support. For example, to gain the support of administration, write your rules, positive consequences, and a list of penalties. The list of negative consequences moves from official warning/cease-and-desist order, to removal from the classroom. In between are sequentially more punitive outcomes for failure to comply with the teacher direction.
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Elements of Assertive Discipline
The Assertive Discipline model recognizes a three step process for promoting positive and appropriate student behavior:
Create and teach a discipline plan with 4-5 rules and specific consequences: The teacher must first identify rules and expectations, and present them to the students, ensuring that they are understood.
Use positive repetition to reinforce the rules: The teacher should focus on reinforcing positive behaviors rather than punishing the negative ones. Examples of positive reinforcement would be to provide verbal praise, rewards, priveledges, games or prizes.
Assertively address negative behavior: Negative behavior should be addressed quickly, assertively, and consistently. Punishment should never be psychologically or physically harmful to the student. (Baron, 1992)
The Canters also suggest a five-step "discipline hierarchy" of escalating consequences when rules are broken:
First Infraction: Warning
Second: Student is given a ten-minute time out.
Third: Student is given a fifteen-minute time out.
Fourth: Student's parents are called.
Fifth: Student is sent to the principal's office.
Bloom's Taxonomy
Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of educational psychologist Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing and evaluating, rather than just remembering facts (rote learning).
The Three Types of Learning
The committee identified three domains of educational activities or learning (Bloom, 1956):
Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)
Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude or self)
Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)
Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers often refer to these three categories as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as “the goals of the learning process.”
Here are the authors’ brief explanations of these main categories in from the appendix ofTaxonomy of Educational Objectives (Handbook One, pp. 201-207):
Knowledge “involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting.”
Comprehension “refers to a type of understanding or apprehension such that the individual knows what is being communicated and can make use of the material or idea being communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implications.”
Application refers to the “use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations.”
Analysis represents the “breakdown of a communication into its constituent elements or parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between ideas expressed are made explicit.”
Synthesis involves the “putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole.”
Evaluation engenders “judgments about the value of material and methods for given purposes.”
Bloom Taxonomy Key Words, Model Questions and Strategies.pdf
Bloom's Taxonomy Breakdown.pdf
Book instructional strategies.pdf
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Glasser's Choice Theory may be at the top of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Lev Vygotsky
Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), who lived during Russian Revolution. Vygotsky’s work was largely unkown to the West until it was published in 1962. Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes:
Major themes:
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).” (Vygotsky, 1978).
The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.
The concept of the ZPD is widely used to study children's mental development as it relates to education. The ZPD concept is seen as a scaffolding, a structure of "support points" for performing an action. Although Vygotsky himself never mentioned the term; instead, scaffolding was developed by other sociocultural theorists applying Vygotsky's ZPD to educational contexts. Scaffolding is a process through which a teacher or more competent peer helps the student in his or her ZPD as necessary, and tapers off this aid as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction. "Scaffolding [is] the way the adult guides the child's learning via focused questions and positive interactions."
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Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.
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The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Lev S. Vygotsky believed that culture is the principal determinant of cognitive progress. In Vgostsky's theory on constructivism, knowledge leads to further cognitive development. The societal configuration of intelligence states that the individual growth could not be comprehended without indication to the societal and cultural context where the aforementioned evolution is entrenched mind development is continuous.
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Vygotsky focuses on the actual mechanism of the development. He excludes discernible stages of development as theories and assumptions. Vygotsky's theory on constructivism does not adhere to the idea that a single abstract principle is able to explain cognitive development. As a substitute to Piaget's constructivism, he argues that knowledge is internalization of social activity.
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Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.
Vygotsky's theory is complementary to Bandura's work on social learning and a key component of situated learning theory as well. Because Vygotsky's focus was on cognitive development, it is interesting to compare his views with those a constructivist (Bruner) and a genetic epistemologist (Piaget).
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Vygotsky argued, "that language is the main tool that promotes thinking, develops reasoning, and supports cultural activities like reading and writing" (Vygotsky 1978). As a result, instructional strategies that promote literacy across the curriculum play a significant role in knowledge construction as well as the combination of whole class leadership, individual and group coaching, and independent learning. Moreover, teachers need to provide the opportunity to students for a managed discussion about their learning. Discussion that has a purpose with substantive comments that build off each other and there is a meaningful exchange between students that results in questions that promote deeper understanding. Discussion-based classroom using socratic dialogue where the instructor manages the discourse can lead each student to feel like their contributions are valued resulting in increased student motivation.
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Sources
Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
Cognitive Development: Piaget and Vygotsky
Click [here] to access the site which describes Activating, Cognitive, and Summarizing Strategies that may be used with students. Develop a grading tool that assesses student learning outcomes. Paste the project into Livetext for grading.
Answer the items below
How will you use the instructional practices as individual work?
Can you provide an assessment for the strategy?
Can you design an assignment for diverse learning groups?
What are your expectations from the most difficult learner to the advanced student?
What are the learning outcomes for each topic/strategy?
What level of understanding is the strategy (knowledge, comprehension, analysis, evaluate, synthesis)?
Can you design various activities for the same assignment at different cognitive levels?
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Use the attached chart to guide using instructional strategies Strategies to Engage Readers in Text by Discipline.doc Decide which graphic organizers that you would assign your students to improve learning outcomes through differentiated instruction or tiered assignments.
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Society changes but education does not always keep pace with transformations outside of the classroom. Notice the images below to see if this occurs in your environment.
Cognitive development, instructional strategies and integrating technology into the curriculum enhance the activity and engage the learner. What can you do to accomplish this? Use the APA to cite your sources/references. 250 word essay minimum
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