Enduring Understanding 3A

Heritable information provides for continuity of life.

The organizational basis of all living systems is heritable information. The proper storage and transfer of this information are critical for life to continue at the cell, organism and species levels. Reproduction occurs at the cellular and organismal levels. In order for daughter cells \to continue subsequent generational cycles of reproduction or replication, each progeny needs to receive heritable genetic instructions from the parental source. This information is stored and passed to the subsequent generation via DNA. Viruses, as exceptional entities, can contain either DNA or RNA as heritable genetic information. The chemical structures of both DNA and RNA provide mechanisms that ensure information is preserved and passed to subsequent generations. There are important chemical and structural differences between DNA and RNA that result in different stabilities and modes of replication. In order for information stored in DNA to direct cellular processes, the information needs to be transcribed (DNA→RNA) and in many cases, translated (RNA→protein). The products of these processes determine metabolism and cellular activities and, thus, the phenotypes upon which evolution operates.

In eukaryotic organisms, genetic information is packaged into chromosomes, which carry essential heritable information that must be passed to daughter cells. Mitosis provides a mechanism that ensures each daughter cell receives an identical and complete set of chromosomes and that ensures fidelity in the transmission of heritable information. Mitosis allows for asexual reproduction of organisms in which daughter cells are genetically identical to the parental cell and allows for genetic information transfer to subsequent generations. Both unicellular and multicellular organisms have various mechanisms that increase genetic variation.

Sexual reproduction of diploid organisms involves the recombination of heritable information from both parents through fusion of gametes during fertilization. The two gametes that fuse to form a new progeny zygote each contain a single set (1n) of chromosomes. Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid (2n) to haploid (1n) by following a single replication with two divisions. The random assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes in meiosis and exchanges between sister chromosomes increase genetic variation; thus, the four gametes, while carrying the same number of chromosomes, are genetically unique with respect to individual alleles and allele combinations. The combination of these gametes at fertilization reestablishes the diploid nature of the organism and provides an additional mechanism for generating genetic variation, with every zygote being genetically different. Natural selection operates on populations through the phenotypic differences (traits) that individuals display; meiosis followed by fertilization provides a spectrum of possible phenotypes on which natural selection acts, and variation contributes to the long-term continuation of species.

Some phenotypes are products of action from single genes. These single gene traits provided the experimental system through which Mendel was able to describe a model of inheritance. The processes that chromosomes undergo during meiosis provide a mechanism that accounts for the random distribution of traits, the independence of traits, and the fact that some traits tend to stay together as they are transmitted from parent to offspring. Mendelian genetics can be applied to many phenotypes, including some human genetic disorders. Ethical, social and medical issues can surround such genetic disorders

Whereas some traits are determined by the actions of single genes, most traits result from the interactions of multiple genes products or interactions between gene products and the environment. These traits often exhibit a spectrum of phenotypic properties that results in a wider range of observable traits, including weight, height and coat color in animals.