Before Jesus Christ ascended into heaven, He instructed his apostles (Matthew 28:19-20):
'19* Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, 20* teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, to the close of the age.'
He reassured them of His constant presence. Moreover, He promised them that the Holy Spirit will also be with them (John 14:16):
'And I will pray the Father, and he will give you another Counselor, to be with you for ever.'
The story of the people which God had called together is an intertwining of the human and divine. On the one hand, we find us human beings, and on the other God Himself. We need to remember this whenever we study the history of the Church.
As we examine the history of the Catholic Church through the centuries, we discover certain features:
1.1 Unity in time and in space (Catholicity)
The Catholic Church, since her founding by Jesus Christ, has retained the same faith and teaching, the same sacraments, the same hierarchy (through apostolic succession), while welcoming a diversity of cultures and races from all the corners of the earth.
1.2 Missionary action
The Church has always preached the Gospel everywhere, making use of every historical event or phenomenon.
1.3 Fruits of holiness
In every generation, the Church has produced saints from persons of all conditions and social standing.
1.4 Capacity for recovery
The crises that human weakness brought upon the Church did not deter her from rising again and recovering her vitality.
2.1 1st to 4th centuries
From the very beginning after the Church was founded by Jesus Christ, Christianity spread under the guidance of Saint Peter and the Apostles, and afterwards, their successors (the Pope and the Bishops). At the beginning of the 4th century Christians comprised 15% of the population of the empire, and were concentrated in the cities and in the empire's eastern portion. But the new religion also reached Armenia, Arabia, Ethiopia, Persia and India.
The Roman Empire considered Christianity a threat, because it taught a freedom of conscience with respect to state authority. The followers of Christ had to suffer many PERSECUTIONS, particularly under Nero (54-68), Domitian (81-96), Trajan (98-117), Marcus Aurelius (161-180), Septimius Severus (193-211), Maximinus Thrax (235-238), Decius (249-251), Valerian (253-260), Aurelian (270-275), Diocletian (284-305). This last one was the bloodiest of all. (Cf Peter Klein, The Catholic Sourcebook, 3rd ed, p 221)
In the year 313, the Emperor CONSTANTINE granted Christians FREEDOM to worship. Emperor Theodosius (379-395) turned Christianity into the official religion of the Roman Empire. By the end of the 4th century, Christians were already a majority in the empire.
2.2 4th century
In the 4th century, when the EXTERNAL threats had abated, the Church had to face a strong INTERNAL crisis: the Arian question. Arius, a priest from Alexandria in Egypt, taught that Jesus Christ was not God, though he was the first of all creatures and superior to all others. Arians also denied that the Holy Spirit was God. This doctrinal crisis, where emperors also would play a part, lasted for more than 60 years. It was finally resolved with the first two ecumenical councils, the first council of NICEA (325) and the first council of CONSTANTINOPLE (381). The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed that we recite at Mass comes from these two councils. Arianism survived till the 7th century, because the Arian missionaries were able to convert the Germanic tribes, who eventually converted to Catholicism but in a gradual manner. (See Lesson 8 for related discussion.)
2.3 5th century
The 5th century brought two new INTERNAL threats to the Church. The first one was NESTORIANISM, which taught that in Christ there were two Persons--one Human and one Divine--aside from having two natures. The Council of EPHESUS (431) condemned this heresy and reaffirmed that there was only one Person in Christ. The Syro-Oriental and Malabar churches come from the Nestorians and are, up to the present, are separated from the Church of Rome.
The other heresy was MONOPHYSISM, which upheld that Jesus Christ had only one nature, the Divine one. This was condemned by the Council of CHALCEDON (451), which affirmed that in Christ there are two natures which are united in the Person of the Word, without any confusion or change (against Nestorianism), without division or separation (against Monophysism): in Latin, inconfuse, immutabiliter, indivise, inseparabiliter. The Coptic, Syro-Western, Armenian and Ethiopian churches which are separated from the Church derive from the monophysite error.
In the first centuries of Christian history, there is a great flowering of CHRISTIAN LITERATURE, HOMILETICS, SPIRITUAL THEOLOGY. These were written by the Fathers of the Church and the ecclesiastical writers.
3.1 Fall of the Roman Empire and the Barbarian Invasions
In 476, the Western Roman Empire was invaded by some Germanic tribes, some of whom were Arians and others pagans. The High Middle Ages (until the year 1000) was undoubtedly a period of great DIFFICULTY for the European continent: political and social violence, cultural impoverishment and economic stagnation, all brought about by tides of invasions which lasted until the 10th century. This situation did not stifle the evangelising work of the Church. During these years, She EVANGELISED the invaders and contributed to making these tribes more CIVILISED. This work of evangelisation extended eventually to the Slavs, Scandinavians and the Magyars. Out of this evangelising and cultural work of the Church arose a new civilisation which reached its zenith from the 12th to the 14th centuries.
3.2 The 6th century
The rise of BENEDICTINE monasteries in the 7th century created oases of peace, tranquility, culture and progress around them.
By the end of this century, the POPES begin to acquire TEMPORAL POWER through the Papal Estates.
3.3 The 7th century
In the 7th century, the IRISH and SCOTTISH monasteries contributed to the evangelising work in the continent.
From this century to the next, ISLAM arose in Arabia. After Mohammad's death, the Arabs launched wars of conquest which created a vast empire. They subjugated, among others, the Christian peoples of North Africa and the Iberian eninsula and they separated the Byzantine world from the Latin-Germanic one. For about 300 years, they were a scourge in Mediterranean Europe with their systematic and continuous raids, plunders and deportations of inhabitants.
3.4 The 8th century
The ENGLISH Benedictines made their own contribution to evangelisation.
The PATRISTIC STAGE of the Church ended in this century, with the last Fathers of the Church: St John Damascene in the East and St Bede the Venerable in the West.
At the end of this century, the TEMPORAL POWER of the PAPACY (the Papal Estates) became institutionalised, though these had been in existence since the end of the 6th century. This was created as a response to the power vacuum in Central Italy because the Byzantine Empire which, theoretically, ruled, but was not capable of administering and defending the people. As time passed, the Popes realised that a limited temporal power was an effective guarantee of independence from the different political powers (emperors, kings, feudal lords).
3.5 The 9th century
On Christmas Night of the year 800, the empire of the West (Holy Roman Empire) was restored. The Holy Father crowned Charlemagne in the Basilica of St Peter. Thus arose a Catholic state with universal aspirations, characterised by a complex relationship between politics and religion that would last until 1806.
3.6 The 10th century
The Papacy went through a grave crisis in the 10th century, owing to the interference of Italian noble families in the election of the Pope and the kings and feudal lords took over the appointment for ecclesiastical assignments (the INVESTITURE QUESTION).
3.7 The 11th & 12th centuries
Through the GREGORIAN REFORM in the 11th century, the church hierarchy was able to recover its independence from political power.
In the year 1054, the Patriarch of Constantinople, MICHAEL CERULARIUS, formally separated the Greeks from the Catholic Church (the so-called EASTERN SCHISM). This was the result of a long-drawn history of quarrels and disputes originating from the 5th century. The Greeks were also influenced by the emperors of the Eastern empire (CAESAROPAPISM). This schism affected all the countries that depended on the Patriarch of Constantinople. Its effect also extended to the Bulgarians, Romanians, Ukrainians, Russians and Serbs.
From the beginning of the 11th century, the Italian republics were able wrench control of the Mediterranean from the Muslims, thus limiting their advance. By the end of this century, the military power of the Christian countries gave rise to the CRUSADES to the Holy Land (1096-1291), military expeditions whose religious aim was the conquest and defense of Jerusalem.
3.8 The 13th and 14th centuries
This is the peak of Medieval civilisation that saw remarkable achievements in Theology and Philosophy (St Albert the Great, St Thomas Aquinas, St Bonaventure, Blessed Duns Scotus) as well as in literature and the arts.
The beginning of the 13th century saw the rise of the Mendicant Orders (e.g., Franciscans, Dominicans).
The confrontation between church and political power (QUESTION INVESTITURE) dragged on to the 12th and 13th centuries, which resulted in the weakening of both institutions. The empire became a German state and the Papacy suffered a notable decline. From 1305 to 1377 the Pope lived not in Rome but in AVIGNON (southern France). When the Pope returned to Rome in 1378, the GREAT WESTERN SCHISM ensued, where two--and later three--simultaneous claimants to the Papacy appeared. The Christian world was confused and did not know who the legitimate Pope was.
3.9 The 15th century
The Council of CONSTANCE (1415-1418) restored unity to the Church.
In 1453 the Muslim Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, thus ending the Eastern Roman Empire (395-1453). They also conquered the Balkans, which they controlled for four centuries.
4.1 The 15th, 16th and 17th centuries
The Modern Age begins with the arrival of Christopher Columbus in AMERICA. This event, together with the explorations of AFRICA and ASIA gave rise to the European colonisation of other parts of the world. The Church made use of this historical phenomenon to spread the Gospel in other continents outside Europe: Canada, Louisiana, the French colonies, in the Central and South American countries, in Congo, in India, Indochina, China, Japan and the Philippines. To coordinate these efforts, the Holy See instituted the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.
Meanwhile, in Europe, the Church was suffering a crisis. Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin (founders of the different PROTESTANT denominations) and King Henry VIII (founder of ANGLICANISM) led to a separation from the Catholic Church in different countries: Scandinavia, Estonia, Latvia, a good portion of Germany, Holland, half of Switzerland, Scotland, England, and their respective colonies (Canada, the US, Antillas, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand).
The Protestant Revolt caused a division in the Western Church which gave rise to the social, political and cultural separation of Europe into two sides: Catholic and Protestant. This situation was summarised in the principle cuius regio, eius et religio, which means that the subjects of the ruler followed whatever religion he professed. This gave rise to the RELIGIOUS WARS, which affected France, the Germanic territories, England, Scotland and Ireland. The Peace of WESTPHALIA (1648) in the European continent and the surrender of LIMERICK (1692) concluded these conflicts.
How did the Catholic Church react to this development? Despite the defection of many nations within a few decades, the Catholic Church was able to carry out serious reform. This historical process, the COUNTER-REFORMATION, reached its apogee when the COUNCIL OF TRENT (1545-1563) was convened, where the doctrines rejected by the Protestants were reaffirmed. These teachings include the canon of the Scripture (i.e., the official list of books of the Bible regarded as inspired by the Holy Spirit), the sacraments, justification, original sin, among others. Aside from clarifying the teachings of the Church, the Council also instituted disciplinary reform such as the setting up of seminaries and the obligation of bishops to stay in their respective dioceses. Many RELIGIOUS ORDERS founded in the 16th century were also involved in the reform. The crisis produced a renewed and reinforced Church, and also saw its spread in new mission lands.
4.2 The 18th century
In the 18th century, the Church had two face two challenges: RISE OF THE MONARCHIES and the ENLIGHTENMENT.
The first grew out of the development of the ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. Medieval institutions such as the feudal system, ecclesiastical privileges, the rights of cities, and so on, were eliminated such that political power came to be autocratic and total. This centralisation of power opened the way for Catholic monarchs to interfere with and control the Church. This system was known as Regalism in Portugal and Spain, Gallicanism in France, Josephism in the territories of the Hapsburgs (Austria, Bohemia, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Lombardia, Toscana, Belgium), Jurisdictionalism in Naples and Parma. This phenomenon resulted in the expulsion of the Jesuits from many places and brought pressure on the Pope to suppress the order (which happened in 1773).
The second challenge was the ENLIGHTENMENT, which began as a philosophical movement and was popular among the governing classes. The Enlightenment exalted reason and nature, and condemned any kind of tradition. It was a complex phenomenon that was characterised by strong materialist tendencies, a naive exaltation of the sciences, the rejection of revealed religion (including a hostility towards the Catholic Church) in the name of deism or unbelief, an excessive man-centeredness, an unreal optimism regarding the natural goodness of man, a utopian confidence in the progress of humanity, an attitude of independence with respect to the past, and a tendency to seek simplistic models to explain reality. Many modern ideologies arose from these currents of thought, which eliminated the need for supernatural revelation and ignored man's spiritual side. The 18th century saw the founding of the first Masonic lodges, which took an anti-Catholic stance.
5.1 The 18th and 19th centuries
The French Revolution led to an extreme Gallicanism, which led to a clearly anti-Christian attitude and eventual bloody PERSECUTION of the Church (1791-1801). Pope Pius VI died in 1799 as a prisoner of the French revolutionaries.
With the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power came peace (CONCORDAT of 1801). However, there arose certain conflicts with Pope Pius VII, whom Napoleon threw into prison and kept there for about five years.
The pre-revolutionary monarchies were restored in 1815, which brought a period of peace to the Church. This was also favoured by ROMANTICISM, the current of thought that prevailed in the first half of the 19th century.
There arose, however, a new challenge to the Faith: LIBERALISM, which was a consequence of the French Revolution. It gradually filtered into the political sphere, promoting the restoration of laws that discriminated against or persecuted the Church. Liberalism went hand in hand with NATIONALISM in many countries. In the second half of the century, it became an ally of IMPERIALISM and POSITIVISM, which ultimately contributed to the dechristianisation of society.
Liberalist laws, however, caused social injustice, which in turn saw the rise of ideologies claiming to represent the aspirations of the oppressed classes: SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, and ANARCHISM. These were promoted projects for a social revolution with an underlying materialist philosophy.
In the 19th century, Catholicism not only lost the protection of many nation states, but also suffered from their policies. In 1870, the Popes lost all temporal power, when the Italians took over the PAPAL ESTATES and unified the whole of Italy.
Was the Church a complete loser? Not at all. The Church knew how to make use of the crisis to strengthen the union of all Catholics to the Holy See, and to free itself from the intrusions of political powers in the internal government of the Church. In 1870, the dogma of papal infallibility was declared by the FIRST VATICAN COUNCIL (1846-1878). In this century, the Church expanded in Africa, Asia and Oceania, many religious congregations for women were established, and the lay apostolate was organised.
5.2 The 20th century
In the 20th century, the Church had to face many challenges. Pius X had to grapple with the MODERNIST heresies, which emptied the faith of its contents. Benedict XV had to face the FIRST WORLD WAR, striving to be impartial to all and carrying out a humanitarian activity for the prisoners of war and the people affected by the conflict. Pius XI opposed TOTALITARIAN SYSTEMS of all kinds: communism in the Soviet Union and in Spain; nationalist socialism in Germany; fascism in Italy, masonry in Mexico. Pius XI also promoted the ordination of local clergy and local bishops in African and Asian mission territories. Pius XII had to face the horror of the SECOND WORLD WAR, using all sorts of means to save as many Jews as possible. It is estimated that at least 800,000 Jews were saved through the intervention of the Church. Pius XII considered it opportune not to launch a public condemnation of the persecution of the Jews since it would have made the situation of Catholics in German-occupied territories more precarious, and it would have made it more difficult, if not impossible, to extend help to the Jews. Many important Jewish personages publicly recognised the invaluable help that Pius XII extended to their people during this period.
John XXIII convened the SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL (1962-1965), which Paul VI brought to a close. The council underscored the fact that everyone is called to holiness (not only priests or religious). It also promoted ecumenism, highlighted the positive aspects of modern civilisation, and encouraged dialogue with other religions and with culture.
In the years following the Council, the Church suffered a deep crisis in doctrine and discipline which She managed to curb to a large extent during the pontificate of John Paul II (1978-2005), a pope with an extraordinary personality, which gave the Holy See a prestige and popularity within and without the Catholic Church. After his death, Benedict XVI, continues to guide the Church with a firm and gentle hand.
(For a more detailed four-session discussion, see http://sites.google.com/site/catholichistory/.)
(Translated and adapted from Carlo Pioppi, in http://www.opusdei.es/art.php?p=31775.)