Glossary of Literary and Rhetorical Terms

analogy (uh-nal-uh-jee) - an imaginative comparison made to show similarity. In argumentation, analogy is often used as a form of reasoning in which one thing is compared to or contrasted with another in certain respects, based on the known similarity or dissimilarity. Analogy is also used in rhetoric and literature (through metaphor, simile, allusion, personification, etc.) to (1) offer imagery, (2) describe difficult concepts ("The mind is a machine") or profound emotions ("I felt like a million bucks"), and (3) offer variety in ways of thinking or new perspectives of viewing the world.

simile (sim-uh-lee) - a comparison, of two unlike things, that uses the word "like" or "as." Example: He dropped his album at the VMAs like a boss.

epic simile (ep-ik sim-uh-lee) - a detailed comparison in the form of a simile that is many lines in length (also called a Homeric simile or extended simile). The following is an example of an epic simile from Homer's The Odyssey:

The heart inside him growled low with rage,

as a bitch mounting over her weak defenseless puppies

growls, facing a stranger, bristling for a showdown--

so he growled from his depths, hackles raised at their outrage.

At the midpoint on the journey of life, I found myself in a dark forest, for a clear path was lost..." Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy.

personification (per-son-e-fih-ka-shen) - giving human-like qualities to inanimate objects, animals, or ideas. Example: Hey diddle, Diddle, / The cat and the fiddle, / The cow jumped over the moon; / The little dog laughed / To see such sport, / And the dish ran away with the spoon. By giving human characteristics to things that do not have them, personification can make objects, animals, and ideas easier for a reader to visualize.

apostrophe (uh-pos-truh-fee) - an exclamatory figure of speech that occurs when a speaker directly addresses an inanimate object, abstract entity, or absent person

anthropomorphism (an-thruh-puh-mawr-fiz-uhm) - extended personification in which physical and tangible human-like qualities are given to an inanimate object, animal, or idea to the extent that it embodies a human form and persona.

metaphor (met-uh-fawr) - a comparison, of two unlike things, that does not use the word "like" or "as." Example: This guy is a beast. Metaphors create imagery and analogies. Metaphors enable writers to communicate in a kind of imaginative shorthand that allows readers to understand and experience one thing in terms of another.

direct metaphor - a metaphor that makes a direct comparison (A is B). Example: John is a peacock.

implied metaphor - a metaphor that suggests a comparison rather than stating it directly. Example: John swelled and ruffled his plumage (versus John was a peacock). In an implied metaphor the subject of comparison is not overtly identified.

extended metaphor - a metaphor that continues into the sentences that follow (also called a conceit).

kenning (ken-ing) - compound expression, often hyphenated, representing a single noun. For example, the Old English epic Beowulf uses the two-word term "whale-road" to refer to the sea or ocean. Other examples: "devil's helper" for sinner and "widow-maker" for gun.

allusion (uh-loo-zhuhn) - a brief reference, explicit or indirect, to a person, place or event, or to another literary work or passage. Example: She was no Scrooge, but she seldom purchased anything except the bare necessities. Allusions serve an important function in writing in that they allow the reader to understand a difficult concept by relating to an already familiar story. For example, to communicate the idea of self-sacrifice one may refer to Jesus, as part of Jesus' story portrays him dying on the cross in order to save mankind (Matthew 27:45-56). In addition, to express righteousness, one might allude to Noah who "had no faults and was the only good man of his time" (Genesis 6:9-22). Furthermore, the idea of fatherhood or patriarchal love can be well understood by alluding to Abraham, who was the ancestor of many nations (Genesis 17:3-6). Finally, Cain is an excellent example to convey banishment, rejection, or evil, for he was cast out of his homeland by God (Genesis 4:12).

diction - a writer’s or speaker’s choice of words and way of arranging the words in sentences. Diction can be broadly characterized as formal or informal. It can also be described as technical or common, abstract or concrete, and literal or figurative. For example, a writer for Scientific American would use a more formal, more technical, and possibly more abstract diction than a writer for the science section of a local newspaper.

imagery (im-ij-ree) - language that appeals to the senses. It is used in all types of writing, but especially in poetry. Imagery consists of descriptive words and phrases that re-create sensory experiences for the reader. Imagery usually appeals to one or more of the five senses sight (visual), hearing (auditory), smell (olfactory), taste (gustatory), and touch (tactile)—to help the reader imagine exactly what is being described. An effect of imagery is that it allows readers to relate the content of a text to their personal experiences.

euphemism (yoo-fuh-miz-uhm) - a word or phrase used to avoid saying an unpleasant or offensive word

dysphemism (dis-fuh-miz-uhm) - substitution of a disagreeable, offensive, or disparaging word or phrase for an otherwise inoffensive one. Examples:

rug for toupee or hairpiece

pig for police officer

boneyard for cemetery

take a crap for use the toilet

pun (puhn) - the use of a word or phrase in which its different meanings are emphasized; wordplay. Example: Dentists practice by going through many drills. Puns are often used to create humor, to exhibit wit, inject ambiguity to introduce several possible meanings into a text, or make the reader aware of serious or painfully ironic truths.

double entendre (duhb-uhl ahn-tahn-druh) - a word or expression used in a given context so that it can be understood in two ways, especially when one meaning is risqué

symbol (sim-bol) - an object, person, place, or an event that stands both for itself and--through association--for something beyond itself. Example: Writers often use a snake as a symbol for evil, as in Nathaniel Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown." Other commonly used symbols include the eagle (strength), a flag (patriotism), and the sea (life).

motif (moh-teff) - any dominant theme or idea that unifies an artistic or literary work

metonymy (mi-ton-uh-mee) - a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated. For example, when reporters use Washington to refer to the U.S. government or the White House to refer to the U.S. president. Generally, metonymy is used in developing symbolism through close associations as in “The White House is concerned about terrorism.” The White House here represents the people who work in it. In addition, metonymy helps achieve conciseness. For instance, “Rifles were guarding the gate” is more concise than “The guards with rifles in their hands were guarding the gate.”

synecdoche (si-nek-duh-kee) - a figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa. Examples: the expression hired hands for workmen; set of wheels for car; steel for sword.

juxtaposition - the arrangement of two or more ideas, characters, actions, images, phrases, or words side-by-side or in similar narrative moments for the purpose of comparison, contrast, suspense, or character development.

situational irony - irony that occurs when actions taken have an effect exactly opposite from what was intended

dramatic irony - irony that occurs when the meaning of a situation is understood by the audience or reader but not by a character in the story or play

verbal irony - irony that occurs when what is said is the opposite of what is meant

sarcasm - a form of verbal irony, usually harsh, that is often used as an insult