Porridge and bread

Remains of porridge usually are only preserved when charred. They may occur as crusts in pots or loosely in waste deposits. If they are totally charred an identification of plant tissues is hardly possible. Only in case of incomplete carbonization, that may occur inside of pots, uncarbonized plant tissues can be preserved. Further informations about the consistence of food remains can be obtained by chemical analyses.

In neolithic porridge from Hornstaad as well as in crusts from Arbon Bleiche 3, both at Lake Constance, the following tissues from cereal grains could be identified: testa, transverse cells and aleuron cells. In charred bread remains from Sweden tissues of barley, einkorn, emmer, naked wheat, spelt, rye, oat, peas and linseeds have been found. An uncarbonized bread from North Germany consisted of millet and barley.

References:

• Behre 1991
• Boon 2006
• Hansson 1994
• Hansson & Isaksson 1994
• Hjelmqvist 1990
• Maier 2001, 59ff., pl. 1-4
• Martinez-Straumann 2004, p. 282
• Samuel 2001
• Samuel 2002
• Spangenberg 2004, p. 284ff.

Human faeces

Faecal concretions are frequently found in pile dwellings and moorland sites, in latrines and in pit fills. Depending on their age and origin they are characterized by high concentrations of small fruit-seeds of strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, figs, grapes and others which pass the digestive system undamaged. While these concentrations can be recognized already on the excavation with the naked eye, other characteristic contents of faeces are only discernable under the microscope: cereal bran, fragments of grounded field weeds, epidermis fragments of fruits, pericarps of apples, epidermis of Allium sp., parasite eggs, spores of coprophilous fungi and others.

In some cases it is not easy to distinguish between faeces remains and rubbish. Cesspits and latrines for example have not only be used for faeces depositions but also for kitchen scraps and other waste material and in the archaeobotanical samples both kinds of remains can be mixed. Also in wetland sites faeces may be deposited at the same place as rubbish.

Nevertheless there are some criteria to distinguish between faeces and rubbish.

References among others:

• Jones, A. K. G. 1983
• Kenward & Hall 1995, fig. 193
• Le Bailly, Bouchet 2004
• Maier 2001, 142 ff.,
• Maier in prep.

Goat/sheep dung

Dung from goats and sheep can easily be identified if they occur in form of pellets or pellet fragments. They are about 1 cm long, in cross-section round or oval and mostly they are copped at one end. Their surface is smooth and thin sections show, that the cortex is compact and contains a lot of phosphatic material. Inside they consist of more losely packed plant material. The following tissue types have been identified in the sites Arbon Bleiche 3 and Hornstaad Hörnle I A, both at Lake Constance: woodfragments, rose and Rubus pricks, mistletoe epidermis, fir needles, moss fragments, not identifiable leave fragments, cereal bran, different seeds and fruits.

References among others:

• Akeret & Jacomet 1997
• Akeret et al. 1999
• Herbig 2006
• Ismail-Meyer & Rentzel 2004
• Kuhn and Hadorn 2004
• Maier 2004
• Marti 2004
• Poppi et al. 1985

Waterlogged dung pellets

Inside a dung pellet

Cow dung

In contrast to dung pellets of ovicapridae cow dung hasn't such a specific form, so that mostly it cannot be doubtlessly recognized. But if compact, flat objects like pats are found, consisting of pure fragmented plant material it possibly could be cow dung and parts of them should be analysed under the microscope. Potential cow dung in Arbon Bleiche 3 contained: fir needles, epidermis of mistletoe, ivy, oak, alder, grasses, rose or Rubus pricks, seeds and fruit from different herbs and grasses, cereal chaff, parts of mosses and others. If pats consist not only of fragmented plant tissue, but are containing sand, much chaff or other coarse materials, they may be mixed with the matrix of the cultural layer. Twigs and bigger leaf fragments in the dung point to uneaten fodder remains.

References among others:

• Akeret and Rentzel 2001
• Ismail-Meyer & Rentzel 2004
• Kühn & Hadorn 2004
• Marti 2004
• Maier 2001
• Maier 2004
• Poppi et al. 1985
• van Waijjen, Vermeeren 2006

Waterlogged remains from dung layers

Fodder

If concentrations of grassland plants, twigs, leaves and buds are found in waterlogged sites, these may derive from animal fodder. While grass or herb species point to hay-like fodder, twigs and leaves could have been harvested for foliage. In the neolithic site of Arbon Bleiche 3 a systematic analysis of twigs and buds have been carried out. The twigs had diameters of only 1-5 mm and were 1-5 years old. Two third of them were cut in winter, only one third in summer. Most of the twigs were from fir and mistletoe and a lot of them from willow, hazel and beech. At the site Hornstaad Hörnle IA, also at Lake Constance, layers of twigs and leaves of mistletoe have been interpreted as fodder remains. In the neolithic settlements of the Federsee bog, ash was the most important fodder tree and twigs of diameters of 2-8 mm have been harvested. In some cases twigs are mixed with grassland plants as in Alleshausen-Grundwiesen, a site that for some time probably was used as a fold yard.

References among others:

• Favre & Jacomet 1998
• Hall and Kenward 1990
• Kuhn and Hadorn 2004
• Maier 1995
• Maier 2001
• Maier 2004
• Rasmussen 1993
• Zibulski 2004

Mistletoe

References

• Akeret, Ö. And Jacomet, S. (1997). Analysis of plant macrofissils in goat/sheep faeces from the Neolithic lake shore settlement of Horgen Scheller - an indication of prehistoric transhumance? Vegetation History and Arcdhaeobotany 6, 235-239.
• Behre, K.-E. (1991). Zum Brotfund aus dem Ipweger Moor, Ldkr. Wesermarsch. Berichte Denkmalpflege Niedersachsen 1, 9.
• Boon, J. (2006). Analytical report on some archaeological charred residues from Schipluiden. In: Schipluiden. A Neolithic Settlement on the Dutch North Sea Coast c. 3500 Cal BC. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 37/38, p. 353-361.
• Favre, P. and Jacomet, S. (1998). Branch wood from the lake shore settlements of Horgen-Scheller, Switzerland: Evidence for economic specialization in the late Neolithic period. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 7, 167-178.
• Hall, A.R., Kenward, H.K. (1990). Environmental Evidence from the Colonia: General Accident and Rougier Street. The Archaeology of York. Vol. 14: The Past Environment of York, Fascicule 6, p. 289-434.
• Hansson, A.-M. (1994). Grain-Paste, Porridge and Bread. Ancient Cereal-Based Food. Laborativ Arkeologi 7, 5 ff.
• Hansson, A.-M. , S. Isaksson (1994). Analyses of Charred Organic Remains. Laborativ Arkeologi 7, 21 ff.
• Herbig, C. (2006). Schaf- oder Ziegendung aus der endneolithischen Station Alleshausen-Täschenwiesen, Kreis Biberach. Arch. Ausgrabungen Baden-Württemberg 2005, 52-54
• Hjelmqvist, H. (1990). Über die Zusammensetzung einiger prähistorischer Brote. Fornvännen, Tidskrift för Svensk Antikvarisk Forskning 85, 9 ff.
• Ismail-Meyer, I., Rentzel, Ph. (2004). Mikromorphologische Untersuchung der Schichtfolge. In: Die jungsteinzeitliche Seeufersiedlung Arbon/Bleiche 3. Umwelt und Wirtschaft. Archäologie im Thurgau, Band 12. Veröffentlichungen des Amtes für Archäologie des Kantons Thurgau, 66-80.
• Jones. A. K. G. (1983). A coprolite from 6-8 pavement. In: Hall, A.R. etws al. (eds.), Environment and living conditions at two Anglo-Scandinavian sites. The Archaeology of York. The Past Environment of York 14/4, 225-229.
• Kenward, H.K., Hall, A.R. (1995). Biological Evidence from Anglo-Scandinavian Deposits at 16-22 Coppergate. The Archaeology of York. Vol. 14: The Past Environment of York, Fascicule 7, p. 435-797.
• Kühn, M., Hadorn, Ph. (2004). Pflanzliche Makro- und Mikroreste aus Dung von Wiederkäuern. In: Jacomet, S. et al.: Die jungsteinzeitliche Seeufersiedlung Arbon/Bleiche 3. Umwelt und Wirtschaft. Archäologie im Thurgau, Band 12. Veröffentlichungen des Amtes für Archäologie des Kantons Thurgau, 327-350.
• Le Bailly, M., Bouchet, F. (2004). Etude paleoparasitologique des coprolithes humains. In: Die jungsteinzeitliche Seeufersiedlung Arbon/Bleiche 3. Umwelt und Wirtschaft. Archäologie im Thurgau, Band 12. Veröffentlichungen des Amtes für Archäologie des Kantons Thurgau, 372-377.
• Maier, U. (1995). Moorstratigraphische und paläoethnobotanische Untersuchungen in der jungsteinzeitlichen Moorsiedlung Ödenahlen am Federsee. In: Siedlungsarchäologie im Alpenvorland III. Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Württemberg 46, p.143 ff.
• Maier, U. (2001). Archäobotanische Untersuchungen in der neolithischen Ufersiedlung Hornstaad-Hörnle I A am Bodensee. Siedlungsarchäologie im Alpenvorland VI. Foschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Württemberg 74, 9-384. Stuttgart.
• Maier, U. (2004). Archäobotanische Untersuchungen in jung- und endneolithischen Moorsiedlungen am Federsee. In: Ökonomischer und ökologischer Wandel am vorgeschichtlichen Federsee. Hemmenhofener Skripte 5, 71-159.
• Marti, H. (2004). Parasitologische Untersuchungen von Wiederkäuer-Exkrementen. In: Die jungsteinzeitliche Seeufersiedlung Arbon/Bleiche 3. Umwelt und Wirtschaft. Archäologie im Thurgau, Band 12. Veröffentlichungen des Amtes für Archäologie des Kantons Thurgau, 358-361.
• Martinez Straumann, S. (2004). Makro- und mikroskopische Untersuchungen von Speisekrusten aus Keramikgefässen. In: Die jungsteinzeitliche Seeufersiedlung Arbon/Bleiche 3. Umwelt und Wirtschaft. Archäologie im Thurgau, Band 12. Veröffentlichungen des Amtes für Archäologie des Kantons Thurgau, 277-283.
• Poppi, D.P., Hendricksen, R.E. and Minson, D.J. (1985). The relative resistance to escape of leaf and stem particles from the rumen of cattle and sheep. Journal of Agricultural Science 105, 9-14.
• Rasmussen, P. (1993). Analysis of goat/sheep faeces from Egolzwil 3, Switzerland: evidence for branch and twig foddering of livestock in the Neolithic. Journal of Archaeological Science 20, 479-502.
• Spangenberg, J. E. (2004). Food residues: Chemistry. In: Die jungsteinzeitliche Seeufersiedlung Arbon/Bleiche 3. Umwelt und Wirtschaft. Archäologie im Thurgau, Band 12. Veröffentlichungen des Amtes für Archäologie des Kantons Thurgau, 284-293.
• van Waijjen, M., Vermeeren, C. (2006). Coprolites, macroscopic analysis. In: Schipluiden. A Neolithic Settlement on the Dutch North Sea Coast c. 3500 Cal BC. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 37/38, p. 301-304.
• Zibulski, P. (2004). Zweige und Knospen. In: Jacomet, S. et al. : Die jungsteinzeitliche Seeufersiedlung Arbon/Bleiche 3. Umwelt und Wirtschaft. Archäologie im Thurgau, Band 12. Veröffentlichungen des Amtes für Archäologie des Kantons Thurgau, 313-326.