In Angels in America, Tony Kushner sheds light on the social alienation of gay men in the American corporate world circa 1985 by posing homosexuality as a narrative ‘opposite’ to the concept of masculinity that was considered hegemonic at the time. Hegemonic masculinity, also known as dominant masculinity, refers to the performance or embodiment of masculinity that a given culture considers ideal or socially prized. In Angels in America, the hegemonic masculinity is embodied by the yuppie—a young urban professional (YUP)—who is, as the name implies, young, successful in business, and the inhabitant of a larger American city such as New York, Chicago, or Seattle. 

Characters like Roy Cohn are narratively displaced within the text because they embody both the hegemonic masculinity and the ‘unwanted’ other—the homosexuality and/or connections to the LGBTQ+ community. While Roy does not personally identify as a gay man, part of his conflict in Angels in America is his coming to terms with the inavoidable consequences of his actions. Roy cannot escape how his diagnosis might label him as undesirable in the corporate world. He and many other men in his position might perceive homosexuality as something that poses a threat to his success both socially and in the context of business. There existed in this era a mentality that in order to accept one’s homosexuality, one must relinquish their masculinity and there was no overlap or notion of the two coexisting.

The image to the left is Roy Cohn, the man fictively featured in Kushner's Angels in America. 

After reading The Fire Next Time by James Baldwin alongside Afterlives by Abdulrazak Gurnah and Half of A Yellow Sun by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, I can draw the conclusion that James Baldwin would not have been happy had he moved to Nigeria in the 1960s. Keeping in mind the considerable Pan-African movement in the United States, we must also recognize that concepts like nationalism, racism, and widespread fears of communism (all the -isms) are not confined to the United States and can be observed in the Nigerian social/cultural context of Half of A Yellow Sun. 

James Baldwin describes himself as a peaceful, pacifistic person in The Fire Next Time. This core value forms the basis of his moral and spirutual life, guiding him away from the Christian church and moreover makes him adverse to aligning with Islam despite the encouragement of Malcom X. Nigeria during the time of the American Civil Rights movement was ripe with violence and anti-pacifism as more and more men were conscripted (drafted) to fight in the civil conflicts. Baldwin's adversion to Islam might have impacted his happiness had he ever moved to Nigeria, as we can observe this religion practiced by some key figures in the novel.

The nationalism-fueled raciam experienced in the United States during this time can also be found in Nigeria. On page 139, characters argue what makes a "true Nigerian" and how neglecting or abandoning one's own local culture in favor of supporting a broader national identity is a commendable thing. A generalized national pride with a disregard for rich cultural practices would make James Baldwin unhappy had he moved to Nigeria in the 1960s.

Pictured to the left is James Baldwin, author of The Fire Next Time. 

Afterlives by Abdulrazak Gurnah has substancially changed my perspective on colonalism from an independant evil to a detrimental mindset that can be adopted and executed by any powerful nation in history with either the means or intention to occupy a politically/militarily ‘weaker’ nation. I drew this conclusion after observing how characters in the novel compare their lived experiences under German colonization to the lived experiences under British colonization. This allowed me to recognize that differences can and have occured in history depending on the root of a nation’s desire to expand territorally and their goals upon aquiring this land from its rightful governance. 

A specific aspect/element of Afterlives that changed my preconcieved notions of European colonalism in Africa was how the foreign German presence altered or otherwise warped the established social norms regarding masculinity. 

In cases of colonization, especially in the German occupation of Africa, we can observe historical records of clashing cultural concepts of masculinity and manhood as a dominant group (Germans). This appears in the narrative of Afterlives when Hamza experiences sexual advances from the German medical officer whom Julius calls a ‘basha’ and refers to his male African assistant as ‘his wife.’ This femininization of native men during foreign occupation establishes the difference between a culturally ‘dominant’ man and culturally ’submissive’ man, even going as far as to change what is culturally considered masculine and feminine by forcefully inserting German concepts of masculinity into the colonized territory. 

In this context, emasculinization can be observed being used by the Germans as a control tactic. Etablishing a new desireable masculinity that is tied close to the German identity makes it so that native individuals feel compelled to embody or idolize these ideals.

In my readings of both Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf and the collection of poems  from WWI, certain authorial patterns jump out at me that I observe as common between the two texts. Specifically, by looking at Siegfried Sassoon’s Grandeur of Ghosts, I was able to recognize the same train of thought narrative that is also common throughout the readings of Mrs. Dalloway. 

Grandeur of Ghosts was written from the perspective of the author himself, the as he reccounts his own experiences with death and grief following the closure of WWI. He recalls memories of his friends who had died in the conflict, referring to them as “great men” while simultaneously describing the inanimate objects around him, such as his lamp and his hands as his new “deathless” friends (Sassoon 4). The poem tackles themes of grief, PTSD, and other issues that afflicted the men returning from the battlefront at the conclusion of the war like a newfound inability to trust or build attachments with other people. 

I connected these themes to my reading of Mrs. Dalloway—specifically to the character Septimus who is descrived as struggling with PTSD-like symptoms after returning home from war. Septimus’ train of thought is present on the page for readers to observe an analyze and while the subject of this thoughts is distinctly interesting, the way that they are presented in intentional run-on sentences and sentences that change rapidly in subject or structure could serve as an accurate depiction of the human brain as it struggles to cope with the change in environment from the battlefront to ‘normal’ urban or domestic life. 

Mrs. Dalloway offers a unique pespective on this topic because it was written by a woman and deals both in male and female perspectives within the novel. While readers gain insight about Septimus’ struggle from his own thoughts, we also see the reactions of his behavior from the women close to him like his wife Lucrezia/Rezia. In her concern for her husband, she calls upon Sir William Bradshaw, a psychiatrist, to help guide his course of treatment. When Sir William expresses a desire to institutionalize Septimus, Lucrezia is at a loss for how to deal with her husband’s suffering on her own and can’t think of a better way to help him. Helplessness is shared by both the man and woman in this scenario, which is aided by the feminine persepective of the author. 

(pictured to the left is author Virginia Woolf). 

The reason why Villette by Charlotte Bronte is generally lesser known in comparison to works like Jane Eyre or Wuthering Heights is, in my personal opinion, due in part to the lack of cultural significance that the work held during the time in which it was written and published. Released ten or so years following her success with Jane Eyre, Villette grappled with themes of mental illness that, paired with the representation of an independent female character, did not resonate with audiences who were likely seeking out literature as a form of escapism. As previously discussed with the potential for Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein to exist as a form of gothic escapist literature, Villette did not offer a look into a fictional life more gruesome and supernatural than the real world, but merely a look into a realistically depressing and unhappy life that any reader could have realistically achieved or experienced. The realistic aspects of Villette may have inadvertently discouraged any overwhelming positive attention it may have been set up to receive upon its release. 

Furthermore, there existed a set of standards in the late 19th century for women, and women writers especially, to establish a ‘happy ending’ for any female protagonists which usually involved falling in love, getting married, and having children. I find myself comparing Lucy Snowe to the character of Elizabeth Lavenza of Frankenstein because they almost seem to exist on opposite ends of a literary spectrum of female agency. While Elizabeth’s fate was tragic, it was set up as a narrative tool to showcase the impact of Victor’s creation on the ‘good’ parts of his life. Lucy Snowe’s tragedy is a consistent one highlighted only by a great loss near the end of the novel.

That being said, the author’s choice to close Villette with an open-end (and implied sad ending) may have aided in its overall lack of cultural response. The fact that the narrator never crosses over or triumphs over her obstacle of mental illness may have left readers of the time with sobering notions of realism and disillusionment toward literature. 

There exists in the text, and within the cultural context in which it takes place, a connection between the pursuit of education and the notion of travel. This is just as much the case for Victor Frankenstein, as he travels to Bavaria to attend the University of Ingolstadt, as well as it is for his creation. In the second half of the novel, Frankenstein’s ‘monster’ goes on an educational journey that parallels that of his creator in the first half. A distinct difference between the two is the nature of each educational journey. 

The monster, upon going out into the world with no preconceived notions of life, perpetuates the romantic idea that education can be achieved by simply appreciating and existing within the natural world. On the other hand, Victor’s pursuit of knowledge is informed by his place in society and his access to literature while simultaneously consisting of pre-established knowledge and analysis of the world and how it works. 

In both cases, the pursuit of knowledge leads to reclusivity—Victor hides himself out of his fear of his creation while his creation hides out of other people’s fear of him. 

While both characters undergo extensive travel within the book, it was interesting to note that Victor, who initially pursued knowledge, became trapped in misery and paranoia whereas the monster, who went out into the world without any true intention to learn or gain anything, became well-spoken and cultured throughout the course of the narrative. 

The Woman of Colour uses the lived experience of Olivia Fairfield to explore the positions of a woman of colour as they shift from the context of Jamaica to England. The text puts focus on the exotic curiosity that greets Olivia upon arriving in England rather than the respect or humanity that she might have expected. Her position in England is immediately framed as one of novelty and this becomes especially clear when Mrs. Merton presents Olivia with rice, a staple food amongst enslaved individuals who have access to very few other options, and expects her to be familiar with the dish as well as be grateful for it on account of her perceived notions of Olivia’s race. In the English context, the character of Mrs. Merton represents the ideal or expected position of a woman in society who is directly rivaled in conversation by Olivia, who in the English context might represent a social taboo. This is highlighted by the immediate suspicion and contempt that Mrs. Merton aims toward Olivia upon their meeting. 

It’s safe to say as a reader that while Olivia is viewed through one singular lens in England, her position in society becomes increasingly nuanced in her discussion of her life and experiences in Jamaica. Olivia, as the daughter of a plantation owner, experiences some distinct privileges, such as education, that other coloured women in Jamaican society might not have had access to. However, her situation becomes especially nuanced when we take into account that Olivia’s mother was enslaved and, on top of that, owned by her biological father. This allows for Olivia’s acute understanding of the extent of which enslaved people suffer under the slave trade and slavery systems. These conflicting aspects curate Olivia’s unique social position that was not entirely appreciated in the English social context by the English characters that she encountered.

(Image is from the film adaptation of the story of Dido Elizabeth Belle).