Describe the different structures, powers, and functions of each house of Congress.

Republicanism, the democratic principle that the will of the people is reflected in government debates and decisions by their representatives, is shown in the bicameral structure of Congress. The Senate is designed to represent states equally, while the House is designed to represent the people.

Different membership sizes influence the formality of debate in each chamber. Debate in the House, which has 435 members, is more formal than in the Senate, with 100 members.

Interactions in Congress are affected by the two-party system and term-length differences. One-third of the Senate is elected every two years, creating a continuous legislative body. All House members are elected every two years.

The enumerated and implied powers in the Constitution allow Congress to participate in the public policy process by:

• • Passing a federal budget, raising revenue by laying and collecting taxes, borrowing money, and coining money

  • Declaring war and providing the funds necessary to maintain the armed forces

  • Determining the process for naturalization by which people can become citizens of the U.S.

  • Regulating interstate commerce

  • Creating federal courts and their jurisdictions

  • Enacting legislation under the authority of the necessary and proper clause

  • Conducting oversight of the executive branch, including federal agencies in the bureaucracy

Explain how the structure, powers, and functions of both houses of Congress affect the policymaking process.

The structures and powers of the Senate and House are different by design. This difference directly affects the legislative process.

Both chambers refer bills to committees, which conduct hearings and debate and mark up bills with revisions and additions. Leadership in committees is determined by the majority political party.

Chamber-specific rules and procedures affect the legislative process:

• • In the House, the Speaker is elected by a majority of members and presides over the legislative work in the House. All revenue bills must originate in the House. Rules for debate in the House on a bill are established by the Rules Committee. The House can form a Committee of the Whole in order to expedite debate on bills. An individual representative in the House can file a discharge petition to have a bill brought to the floor for debate, but it is rarely done.

  • In the Senate, bills are typically brought to the floor by unanimous consent, but a Senator may request a hold on a bill to prevent it from getting to the floor for a vote. During debate, a Senator can use the filibuster (a tactic to prolong debate and delay or prevent a vote on a bill) or make a motion for cloture (a procedure to end a debate).

  • When a bill passed by both chambers on the same topic has variation in its wording, a conference committee meets to reconcile those differences

.Congress must generate a budget that addresses both mandatory and discretionary spending.

• • Mandatory spending is required by law for entitlement programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid.

  • Discretionary spending is approved on an annual basis for defense spending, education, and infrastructure. As entitlement costs grow, discretionary spending opportunities will decrease unless tax revenues increase, or the budget deficit increases.

Pork-barrel legislation (funding for a local project in a larger appropriation bill) and logrolling (combining several pieces of legislation into one bill to secure enough votes for passage) affect the legislative process in both chambers.

Explain how congressional behavior is influenced by election processes, partisanship, and divided government.

Congressional behavior and governing effectiveness are influenced by ideological divisions between political parties. Partisan voting (when members of Congress vote based on their political party affiliation) and polarization (when political attitudes move toward ideological extremes) can lead to gridlock (a situation in which no congressional action on legislation can be taken due to a lack of consensus).

Gerrymandering, redistricting, and unequal representation of constituencies have been partially addressed by Supreme Court cases that opened the door for equal protection challenges to redistricting.

Elections that have led to a divided government (when one party controls the presidency and the other party controls at least one of the chambers of Congress) can lead to more intense partisanship. This partisanship can result in members of Congress voting against presidential initiatives and appointments, especially those of a lame duck president.

Accountability to constituents in each chamber is affected by how representatives perceive their roles.

• • A representative who conceives of their role as a trustee will vote on issues based on their own knowledge and judgment.

  • A representative acting as a delegate sees themselves as an agent of those who elected them and will vote on issues based on the interests of their constituents.

  • A politico uses a combination of these role conceptions.

Explain how the president can implement a policy agenda.

Presidents use powers and perform functions of the office, with support from the Vice-President, Cabinet, and Executive Office of the President, to accomplish a policy agenda.

The powers of the president include both formal and informal powers:

• • Vetoes and pocket vetoes are formal powers that enable the president to check Congress, but vetoes can be overridden with a 2/3 vote while pocket vetoes cannot be overridden with a 2/3 vote.

  • Foreign policy powers that influence relations with foreign nations are both formal (commander-in-chief and treaties) and informal (executive agreements).

  • Bargaining and persuasion are informal powers that enable the president to secure congressional action.

  • Executive orders allow the president to manage the federal government and are implied by the president’s vested executive power or by power delegated by Congress.

  • Signing statements are informal powers that inform Congress and the public of the president’s interpretation of laws passed by Congress and signed by the president.

Explain how the president’s agenda can create tension and frequent confrontations with Congress.

Senate confirmation ("advise and consent") is an important check on appointment powers but there can be a potential for conflict based on who is chosen by the president for appointments, including:

• • Cabinet members

  • Ambassadors

  • Some positions within the Executive Office of the President

  • Supreme Court Justices, Court of Appeals judges, and District Court judges

Senate confirmation is an important check on appointment powers, but the president’s longest-lasting influence lies in life-tenured judicial appointments.

Policy conflicts with the congressional agenda (the formal list of policies Congress is considering at any given time) can lead the president to use executive orders and directives to the bureaucracy to address the president’s own agenda items.

Explain how presidents have interpreted and justified their use of formal and informal powers.

Federalist No. 70 offers justification for a single executive by arguing a strong executive is “essential to the protection of the country against foreign attacks, to the steady administration of the laws, to the protection of property, and to the security of liberty.”

Passage of the Twenty-Second Amendment, which established presidential term limits, demonstrates concern about the expansion of presidential power.

Different perspectives on the presidential role, ranging from a limited to a more expansive interpretation and use of power, continue to be debated in the context of contemporary events.

Explain how communication technology has changed the president’s relationship with the national constituency and the other branches.

The impact of presidential communication has increased with advances in communication technology.

• • Modern technology, such as social media, allows for rapid responses to political issues.

  • Nationally broadcast State of the Union messages and the president’s bully pulpit are tools for agenda setting that use the media to influence public views about which policies are the most important.

Explain the principle of judicial review and how it checks the power of other branches.

The foundation for powers of the judicial branch and the argument for how its independence checks the power of other branches is set forth in the following documents, respectively:

• • Article III of the Constitution

  • Federalist No. 78

Explain the role of legal precedent in judicial decision making.

Stare decisis (the legal doctrine under which courts follow legal precedents when deciding cases with similar facts) plays an important role in judicial decision-making.

Ideological changes in the composition of the Supreme Court due to presidential appointments have led to the Court’s establishing new or rejecting existing precedents.

Explain how life tenure can lead to debate about the Supreme Court’s power.

Life tenure for justices allows the court to function independent of the current political climate. As a result of this independence, the Court can deliver controversial or unpopular court decisions, which in turn can lead to debate about the court’s power

Explain how the exercise of judicial review can lead to debate about the Supreme Court’s power.

Explain how other branches in the government can limit the Supreme Court’s power.

Political discussion about the Supreme Court’s power is illustrated by the ongoing debate over differing interpretations of judicial review.

• • Judicial activism asserts that judicial review allows the courts to overturn current Constitutional and case precedent or invalidate legislative or executive acts.

  • Judicial restraint asserts that judicial review should be constrained to decisions that adhere to current Constitutional and case precedent.

Restrictions on the Supreme Court are represented by:

• • Congressional legislation to modify the impact of prior Supreme Court decisions

  • Ratification of a Constitutional amendment

  • Judicial appointments and confirmations which may shift the ideological balance of the court

  • The president and states delaying implementation of a Supreme Court decision

  • Enacting legislation to limit the cases the Supreme Court can hear on appeal by removing the court’s jurisdiction over a case

Explain how the bureaucracy carries out the responsibilities of the federal government.

The federal bureaucracy is composed of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement policy by:

• • Writing and enforcing regulations

  • Issuing fines

  • Testifying before Congress

  • Forming iron triangles (alliances of congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups that are prominent in specific policy areas)

  • Creating issue networks (temporary coalitions that form to promote a common issue or agenda)

The civil service primarily uses a merit system that prioritizes hiring and promotion based on professionalism, specialization, and neutrality, as opposed to political patronage, whereby bureaucratic jobs are politically appointed.

Explain how the federal bureaucracy uses delegated discretionary authority for rulemaking and implementation.

The federal bureaucracy uses discretionary power as delegated by Congress to interpret and implement policies. Through their rulemaking authority, federal bureaucratic agencies utilize their discretion to create and enforce regulations. Bureaucratic agencies include:

• • Department of Homeland Security

  • Department of Transportation

  • Department of Veterans Affairs

  • Department of Education

  • Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

  • Federal Elections Commission (FEC)

  • Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

Explain how Congress uses its oversight power in its relationship with the executive branch.

Explain how the president ensures that executive branch agencies and departments carry out their responsibilities in concert with the goals of the administration.

Congressional oversight of the bureaucracy to ensure that legislation is implemented as intended includes:

• • Review, monitoring, and supervision of bureaucratic agencies

  • Investigation and committee hearings of bureaucratic activity

  • Power of the purse (the ability of Congress to check the bureaucracy by appropriating or withholding funds)

As a means to curtail the use of presidential power, congressional oversight serves as a check of executive authorization.

Presidential ideology, authority, and influence affect how executive branch agencies carry out the goals of the administration.

Compliance monitoring ensures that funds are being used properly and regulations are being followed. Compliance monitoring can pose a challenge to policy implementation.

Explain the extent to which governmental branches can hold the bureaucracy accountable given the competing interests of Congress, the president, and the federal courts.

Explain how the distribution of powers among the three branches of government impacts policymaking.

Formal and informal powers of Congress, the president, and the courts over the bureaucracy are used to maintain its accountability.

The allocation of powers among the three branches of government creates multiple access points for stakeholders and institutions to influence public policy.

National policymaking is constrained by the sharing of powers between the three branches.