absentee ballots voting completed and submitted by a voter before the day of an election.

affirmative action a policy designed to address the consequences of previous discrimination by providing special consideration to individuals based upon their characteristics, such as race or gender.

agency capture when agencies tasked with regulating businesses, industries, or other interest groups are populated by individuals with close ties to the very firms that they are supposed to regulate.

agenda setting the media’s ability to highlight certain issues and bring them to the attention of the public.

aggregating a process through which internet and other news providers relay the news as reported by journalists and other sources.

amendment a constitutional provision for a process by which changes may be made to the Constitution.

the "American dream" the idea that individuals should be able to achieve prosperity through hard work, sacrifice, and their own talents.

American political culture the set of beliefs, customs, traditions, and values that Americans share.

amicus curiae brief a brief filed by someone who is not a party to a case in an attempt to persuade the court to agree with the arguments set forth in the brief.

Antifederalist a person opposed to the proposed Constitution who favored stronger state governments.

appellate jurisdiction the authority of a court to hear and review decisions made by lower courts in that system.

apportionment the process of determining the number of representatives for each state using census data.

appropriation the process through which congressional committees allocate funds to executive branch agencies, bureaus, and departments.

Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union a governing document that created a union of thirteen sovereign states in which the states, not the union, were supreme.

bail an amount of money posted as a security to allow the charged individual to be freed while awaiting trial.

bargaining and persuasion an informal tool used by the president to persuade members of Congress to support his or her policy initiatives.

battleground state a state where the polls show a close contest between the Republican and Democratic candidate in a presidential election.

benchmark poll a survey taken at the beginning of a political campaign in order to gauge support for a candidate and determine which issues are important to voters.

bicameral a two-house legislature (the U.S. Congress is comprised of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives).

bill of attainder when the legislature declares someone guilty without a trial.

Bill of Rights a list of fundamental rights and freedoms that individuals possess. The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are referred to as the Bill of Rights.

bipartisanship agreement between the parties to work together in Congress to pass legislation.

block grant a type of grants-in-aid that gives state officials more authority in the disbursement of federal funds.

broadcast media outlets for news and other content that rely on mass communications technology to bring stories directly into people’s homes.

Brutus No. 1 an Antifederalist paper arguing that the country was too large to be governed as a republic and that the Constitution gave too much power to the national government.

budget deficit the difference when a government takes in less money than it spends.

budget surplus the amount of money remaining when the government takes in more money than it spends.

bully pulpit presidential appeals to the public to pressure other branches of government to support his or her policies.

bureaucrat an official employed within a government bureaucracy.

bureaucratic adjudication when the federal bureaucracy settles disputes between parties that arise over the implementation of federal laws or determines which individuals or groups are covered under a regulation or program.

bureaucratic discretion the power to decide how a law is implemented and, at times, what Congress actually meant when it passed a given law.

business cycle the fluctuation of economic activity around a long-term trend, with periods of expansion and contraction.

candidate-centered campaign a trend in which candidates develop their own strategies and raise money with less influence from the party elite.

capitalist system a way of structuring economic activity in which private firms are allowed to make most or all of the decisions involving the production and distribution of goods and services.

categorical grants grants-in-aid provided to states with specific provisions on their use.

caucus a process through which a state’s eligible voters meet to select delegates to represent their preferences in the nomination process.

certiorari the process through which most cases reach the Supreme Court; after four justices concur that the Court should hear the case ("rule of four"), a writ of certiorari is issued to the lower court to request the relevant case records.

checks and balances a design of government in which each branch has powers that can prevent the other branches from making policy or to limit their reach to ensure the equal distribution of power.

civil disobedience the intentional refusal to obey a law to call attention to its injustice.

civil law a category of law covering cases involving private rights and relationships between individuals and groups.

civil liberties fundamental rights and freedoms protected from infringement by the government.

civil rights protections from discrimination as a member of a particular group.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 legislation outlawing racial segregation in schools and public places and authorizing the attorney general to sue individual school districts that failed to desegregate.

civil society group (CSO) an independent association outside the government’s control (ex: Amnesty International), sometimes also referred to as non-governmental organization (NGO).

clear and present danger test legal standard that speech posing an immediate and serious threat to national security is not protected by the First Amendment; established in Schenck.

closed primary a primary election in which only those who have registered as a member of a political party may vote.

cloture a procedure through which senators can end debate on a bill and proceed to action, provided three-fifths of senators agree to it.

collective action political action that occurs when individuals contribute their energy, time, or money to a larger group goal.

collective good (public good) a public benefit that individuals can enjoy or profit from even if they do not help achieve it.

command-and-control economy economic policy in which government dictates much of a nation’s economic activity, including the amount of production and prices for goods.

commerce clause grants Congress the authority to regulate interstate business and commercial activity; Article 1, Section 8, Clause 3 of the U.S. Constitution.

committee chair leader of a congressional committee who has authority over the committee’s agenda.

Committee of the Whole consists of all members of the House and meets in the House chamber but is governed by different rules, making it easier to consider complex and controversial legislation.

Compromise on Importation Congress could not restrict the slave trade until 1808.

concurrent powers powers granted to both states and the federal government in the Constitution.

concurring opinion an opinion that agrees with the majority decision, offering different or additional reasoning that does not serve as precedent.

confederal system a system where the subnational governments have most of the power.

Congressional Budget Office (CBO) the federal agency tasked with producing independent analyses of budgetary and economic issues to support the congressional budget process.

conservatism an ideology favoring more regulation of social behavior and less government interference in the economy.

constituency a body of voters in a given area who elect a representative or senator.

constitution a document that sets out the fundamental principles of governance and establishes the institutions of a government.

Constitutional Convention a meeting attended by state delegates in 1787 to fix the Articles of Confederation.

constitutional republic a democratic system with elected representatives in which the constitution is the supreme law.

consumer price index (CPI) a basket of fixed goods and services over time, used to measure changes in the cost of living.

cooperative federalism a form of American federalism in which the states and the national government work together to shape public policy.

criminal law a category of law covering actions determined to harm the community itself.

critical election a major national election that signals a change in the balance of power between the two parties.

de facto segregation a separation of individuals based on characteristics that arises not by law but because of other factors, such as residential housing patterns and contemporary or local social norms.

defendant a person or group against whom a case is brought in court.

de jure segregation the separation of individuals based on their characteristics, such as race, intentionally and by law.

delegate a person who acts as the voters’ representative at a convention to select the party’s nominee.

delegate role the idea that the main duty of a member of Congress is to carry out constituent wishes.

democracy a system of government where power is held by the people.

demographic characteristics measurable characteristics of a population, such as economic status, education, age, race or ethnicity, gender, and partisan attachment.

demographics the grouping of individuals based on shared characteristics, such as ancestry, race, ethnicity, and gender.

deregulation the reduction or elimination of government power in a particular industry, usually to create more competition within the industry.

descriptive representation the degree to which a body of representatives in a legislature does or does not reflect the diversity of that nation’s identities and lived experiences.

devolution returning more authority to state or local governments.

digital divide divisions in society that are driven by access to and knowledge about technologies; these gaps often fall along the lines of partisanship, class, race, and ethnicity.

direct democracy a political system in which citizens vote directly on public policies (remnants today include a referendum or recall).

discharge petition a motion filed by a member of Congress to move a bill out of committee and onto the floor of the House of Representatives for a vote.

discretionary spending spending for programs and policies at the discretion of Congress and the president.

dissenting opinion an opinion that disagrees with the majority opinion and does not serve as precedent.

divided government a situation that occurs when control of the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress is split between the two major parties.

double jeopardy protects an individual acquitted of a crime from being charged with the same crime again in the same jurisdiction.

dual federalism a form of American federalism in which the states and the nation operate independently in their own areas of public policy.

due process clause the clause in the Fourteenth Amendment that restricts state governments from denying their citizens their life, liberty, or property without legal safeguards.

earmark an addition to a piece of legislation that directs specific funds to projects within districts or states.

economic interest group a group advocating on behalf of the financial interests of members (ex: U.S. Chamber of Commerce, AFL-CIO). 

economic policy the efforts of government to regulate and support the economy to protect and expand citizens’ financial well-being and economic prospects and to support businesses in the global financial system.

economic recession a period of decline in economic activity, typically defined by two consecutive quarters of negative GDP growth.

economy the systems and organizations through which a society produces and distributes goods and services.

Electoral College a constitutionally required process for selecting the president through slates of electors chosen in each state, who are pledged to vote for a nominee in the presidential election.

elite a small number of individuals (who tend to have well-informed and well-reasoned opinions).

elitist theory theory of democracy that the elites have a disproportionate amount of influence in the policymaking process.

entitlement program a program that provides benefits for those who qualify under the law, regardless of income.

entrance survey a poll conducted of people coming to an event.

enumerated powers powers explicitly granted to the national government through the Constitution; also called express powers.

equal protection clause a clause of the Fourteenth Amendment that requires the states to treat all citizens alike with regard to application of the laws.

Equal Rights Amendment a proposed but not ratified amendment to the Constitution that sought to guarantee equality of rights based upon sex.

era of divided government a trend since 1969, in which one party controls one or both houses of Congress and the president is from the opposing party.

establishment clause First Amendment protection against the government requiring citizens to join or support a religion.

exclusionary rule a rule that evidence obtained without a warrant is inadmissible in court.

exclusive powers powers only the national government may exercise.

executive agreement an agreement between a president and another nation that does not have the same durability in the American system as a treaty but does not require Senate ratification.

executive branch the institution responsible for carrying out laws passed by the legislative branch.

Executive Office of the President a collection of offices within the White House organization designed mainly to provide information to the president.

executive order policy directives issued by presidents that do not require congressional approval.

executive privilege a right claimed by presidents to keep certain conversations, records, and transcripts confidential from outside scrutiny, especially that of Congress.

exit poll a survey conducted outside a polling place in which individuals are asked who or what they just voted for and why.

ex post facto law a law punishing people for acts that were not crimes at the time they were committed.

expressed or enumerated powers authority specifically granted to a branch of the government in the Constitution.

extradition the requirement that officials in one state return a defendant to another state where the crime was committed.

faction a group of self-interested people, usually as a subset of a larger group in politics who advocate for their particular interests and politial aims.

federal bureaucracy the departments and agencies within the executive branch that carry out the laws of the nation.

federal civil service the merit-based bureaucracy, excluding the armed forces and political appointments.

federal courts of appeals the middle level of the federal judiciary; these courts review and hear appeals from the federal district courts.

federal district courts the lowest level of the federal judiciary; these courts usually have original jurisdiction in cases that start at the federal level.

federalism the sharing of power between the national government and the states.

Federalist supporter of the proposed Constitution, who called for a strong national government.

Federalist No. 10 an essay in which Madison argues that the dangers of faction can be mitigated by a large republic and republican government.

Federalist No. 51 an essay in which Madison argues that separation of powers and federalism will prevent tyranny.

Federalist No. 78 argument by Alexander Hamilton that the federal judiciary would be unlikely to infringe upon rights and liberties but would serve as a check on the other two branches.

Federalist Papers a series of eighty-five essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay and published between 1787 and 1788 that lay out the theory behind the Constitution.

federal judiciary the branch of the federal government that interprets the laws of the nation.

Federal Reserve System a board of governors, Federal Reserve Banks, and member banks responsible for monetary policy.

federal system a system where power is divided between the national and state governments.

Fifteenth Amendment constitutional amendment that gave African Americans the right to vote.

filibuster a tactic through which an individual senator may use the right of unlimited debate to delay a motion or postpone action on a piece of legislation.

fiscal federalism the federal government’s use of grants-in-aid to influence policies in the states.

fiscal policy government use of taxes and spending to attempt to lower unemployment, support economic activity, and stabilize the economy.

focus group a small group of individuals assembled for a conversation about specific issues.

formal or enumerated powers powers of the president expressly granted in the Constitution.

Fourteenth Amendment constitutional amendment asserting that persons born in the United States are citizens and prohibits states from denying persons due process or equal protection under the law.

franchise (or suffrage) the right to vote in political elections.

freedom of expression a fundamental right affirmed in the First Amendment to speak, publish, and protest.

free exercise clause First Amendment protection of the rights of individuals to exercise and express their religious beliefs.

free rider individual who enjoys collective goods and benefits from the actions of an interest group without joining.

front-loading a decision by a state to push its primary or caucus to a date as early in the election season as possible to gain more influence in the presidential nomination process.

full faith and credit clause constitutional clause requiring states to recognize the public acts, records, and civil court proceedings from another state.

gender gap a term that refers to the fact that American women are more likely to identify with and vote for Democratic Party candidates than men, who are more likely to vote for Republican Party candidates.

generational effect the impact of historical events experienced by a generation upon their political views.

gerrymandering the intentional use of redistricting to benefit a specific interest or group of voters.

get out the vote (GOTV) efforts to mobilize voters.

globalization the increasing interconnectedness of people, businesses, and countries throughout the world.

going public a tactic through which presidents reach out directly to the American people with the hope that the people will, in turn, put pressure upon their representatives and senators to press for a president’s policy goals.

government the rules and institutions that make up that system of policymaking.

government interest group organization acting on behalf of local, state, or foreign governments.

Grand Committee a committee at the Constitutional Convention that worked out the compromise on representation.

grand jury a group of citizens who, based on the evidence presented to them, decide whether or not a person should be indicted and subsequently tried in a court of law.

grants-in-aid federal money provided to states to implement public policy objectives.

grassroots lobbying mobilizing interest group members to pressure their representatives by contacting them directly through phone calls, email, and social media.

Great Compromise an agreement for a plan of government that drew upon both the Virginia and New Jersey Plans; it settled issues of state representation by calling for a bicameral legislature with a House of Representatives apportioned proportionately and a Senate apportioned equally.

gridlock a slowdown or halt in Congress’s ability to legislate and overcome divisions, especially those based on partisanship.

gross domestic product (GDP) the total value of goods and services produced by an economy.

hold a delay placed on legislation by a senator who objects to a bill.

horse-race journalism coverage of political campaigns that focuses more on the competition of a campaign and differences between candidates rather than on policy issues (as if it were a sporting event).

House majority leader the person who is the second in command of the House of Representatives.

House Rules Committee a powerful committee that determines when a bill will be subject to debate and vote on the House floor, how long the debate will last, and whether amendments will be allowed on the floor.

implementation the bureaucracy’s role in putting into action the laws that Congress has passed.

implied powers authority of the federal government that goes beyond its expressed powers; powers not granted specifically to the national government but considered necessary to carry out the enumerated powers.

inalienable rights rights the government cannot take away.

incumbency advantage institutional advantages held by those already in office who are trying to fend off challengers in an election.

incumbent a political official who is currently in office.

independent executive agency agency otherwise similar to cabinet departments but existing outside of the cabinet structure and usually having a narrower focus of mission.

independent regulatory agency organization that exists outside of the major cabinet departments and whose job is to monitor and regulate specific sectors of the economy.

individualism the belief that individuals should be responsible for themselves and for the decisions they make.

inflation the rise in the prices of goods and services.

informal powers powers not laid out in the Constitution but used to carry out presidential duties.

interest group voluntary association of people who come together with the goal of getting the policies that they favor enacted.

interest rates the rates paid to borrow money; these rates determine how much additional money is owed to the loan provider.

investigative journalism an approach to newsgathering in which reporters dig into stories, often looking for instances of wrongdoing.

iron triangle coordinated and mutually beneficial activities of the bureaucracy, Congress, and interest groups to achieve shared policy goals.

issue network webs of influence between interest groups, policymakers, and policy advocates.

judicial activism a philosophy of constitutional interpretation that justices should wield the power of judicial review, sometimes creating bold new policies or advancing social causes.

judicial branch the institution responsible for hearing and deciding cases through federal courts.

judicial restraint a philosophy of constitutional interpretation that asserts justices should be cautious in overturning laws and instead rely on precedent.

judicial review the authority of the Supreme Court to strike down a law or executive action if it conflicts with the Constitution.

laissez-faire (or free enterprise) an economic system in which government intrudes as little as possible in the transactions among citizens and businesses.

lame duck period period at the end of a presidential term when Congress may block presidential initiatives and nominees.

legal segregation the separation by law of individuals based on a characteristic (ie: their race).

legislative branch the institution responsible for making laws.

libel an untrue written statement that injures a person’s reputation.

liberalism an ideology favoring less government control over social behavior and greater regulation of the economy.

libertarianism an ideology favoring very little government intervention beyond protecting private property and individual liberty.

liberty social, political, and economic freedoms.

life-cycle effect the impact of a person’s age and stage in life on his or her political views.

linkage institutions channels that connect individuals with government, including elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.

lobbying interacting with government officials in order to advance a group’s public policy goals.

logrolling trading of votes on legislation by members of Congress to get their earmarks passed into legislation.

majority-minority district a district in which voters of a minority ethnicity constitute an electoral majority within that electoral district.

majority opinion binding Supreme Court opinions written or supported by the majority of the participating justices, which serve as precedent for future cases.

majority party leader the head of the party with the most seats in Congress, chosen by the party’s members.

malapportionment the uneven distribution of the population between legislative districts.

mandatory spending spending required by existing laws that is “locked in” the budget (ie: Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, unemployment, and federal retirement plans).

Marbury v. Madison (1803) a Supreme Court decision that established judicial review over federal laws.

markup a process during which a bill is revised prior to a final vote in Congress.

mass media sources of information that appeal to a wide audience, including newspapers, radio, television, and Internet outlets.

mass survey a survey designed to measure the opinions of the population, usually consisting of 1,500 responses.

media consolidation the concentration of ownership of the media into fewer corporations.

media effects the power of the news media in shaping individuals’ political knowledge, preferences, and political behavior.

Medicaid a federal program that provides health care for the poor.

Medicare a federal program that provides health insurance to seniors and the disabled.

merit system a system of hiring and promotion based on competitive testing results, education, and other qualifications rather than politics and personal connections.

minority leader the head of the party with the second-highest number of seats in Congress, chosen by the party’s members.

Miranda rights the right to remain silent and to have an attorney present during questioning; these rights must be given by police to individuals suspected of criminal activity.

mixed economy economic policy in which many economic decisions are left to individuals and businesses with the federal government regulating economic activity.

monetary policy a set of economic policy tools designed to regulate the amount of money in the economy.

motor voter law a law allowing Americans to register to vote when applying for or renewing their driver’s licenses and making it easier for Americans with disabilities to register to vote.

national convention a meeting where delegates officially select their party’s nominee for the presidency.

national debt the total amount of money owed by the federal government.

natural rights the right to life, liberty, and property, which government cannot take away and that all individuals are born with according to English philosopher John Locke.

necessary and proper or (elastic clause) language in Article I, Section 8, granting Congress the powers necessary to carry out its enumerated powers.

need-based assistance social welfare programs whose benefits are allocated to individuals demonstrating specific needs.

net neutrality a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) rule that required internet service providers to treat all data and content providers equally and not discriminate based upon content or bandwidth demands.

New Jersey Plan a plan of government that provided for a unicameral (one-house) legislature with equal votes for each state.

news media a broad term that includes newspapers, magazines, radio, television, radio, internet sources, blogs, and social media postings.

Nineteenth Amendment a 1920 constitutional amendment granting women the right to vote.

nomination the formal process through which parties choose their candidates for political office.

obscenity and pornography words, images, or videos that depict sexual activity in an offensive manner and that lack any artistic merit.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB) the executive branch office that assists the president in setting national spending priorities.

open primary a primary election in which all eligible voters may vote, regardless of their party affiliation.

oral argument presentation made by plaintiffs and attorneys before the Supreme Court.

original jurisdiction the authority of a court to act as the first court to hear a case, which includes the finding of facts in the case.

outsourcing when a company moves its business to a place where labor costs are cheaper or production is more efficient because workers work longer hours.

oversight efforts and role of Congress to ensure that executive branch agencies, bureaus, and cabinet departments, as well as their officials, are acting legally and in accordance with congressional goals.

participatory democracy the theory that widespread political participation is essential for democratic government.

partisan bias the slanting of political news coverage in support of a particular political party or ideology.

partisan gerrymandering drawing of district boundaries into strange shapes to benefit a political party.

party coalition interest groups and like-minded voters who support a political party over time.

party era time period when one party wins most national elections.

party identification an individual’s attachment to a political party.

party ideology a party’s philosophy about the proper role of government and its consistent set of positions on major issues.

party-line voting voting for candidates who belong only to one political party for all of the offices on the ballot.

party platform a set of positions and policy objectives that members of a political party agree to.

party system the number of stable parties that exist at a particular time.

Pendleton Act an act of Congress that created the first United States Civil Service Commission to draw up and enforce rules on hiring, promotion, and tenure of office within the civil service. Also known as Civil Service Reform Act of 1883.

plaintiff a person or group who brings a case in court.

plea bargaining a legal process in which the defendant agrees to an outcome before the handing out of a verdict.

Plessy v. Ferguson a Supreme Court case in 1896 that upheld legal racial segregation.

pluralism a theory of governmental influence that views the distribution of political power among many competing groups as serving to keep any one of them in check.

pluralist theory a theory of democracy that emphasizes the role of groups in the policymaking process.

plurality when a candidate receives more votes than any other candidate.

pocket veto an informal veto caused when the president chooses not to sign a bill within ten days, during a time when Congress has adjourned at the end of a session.

polarization a sharp ideological distance between political parties.

police powers a category of reserved powers that includes the protection of people’s health, safety, and welfare.

policy agenda the set of issues to which government officials, voters, and the public are paying attention.

political action committee (PAC) an organization that raises money for candidates and campaigns.

political culture the shared set of beliefs, customs, traditions, and values that define the relationship between citizens and government.

political efficacy a person’s belief that he or she can make effective political change.

political ideology an individual’s coherent set of beliefs about government and politics.

political institutions the structure of government, including the executive, legislature, and judiciary.

political mobilization efforts by political parties to encourage their members to vote.

political participation the different ways in which individuals take action to shape the laws and policies of a government.

political party an organized group of party leaders, officeholders, and voters who work together to elect candidates to political office.

political patronage filling administrative positions as a reward for support, rather than solely on merit.

political science the systematic study of the ways in which ideas, individuals, and institutions shape political outcomes.

political socialization the experiences and factors that shape our political values, attitudes, and behaviors.

politico role representation where members of Congress balance their choices with the interests of their constituents and parties in making decisions.

politics the process of influencing the actions and policies of government.

popular sovereignty the idea that the government’s right to rule comes from the people.

pork barrel spending legislation that directs specific funds to projects within districts or states.

precedent a judicial decision that guides future courts in handling similar cases.

presidential pardon presidential authority to forgive an individual and set aside punishment for a crime.

primary election an election in which a state’s voters choose delegates who support a particular presidential candidate for nomination or an election by a plurality vote to select a party’s nominee for a seat in Congress.

prior restraint the suppression of material prior to publication on the grounds that it might endanger national security.

privacy a right not enumerated in the Constitution but affirmed by Supreme Court decisions that covers individuals’ decisions in their private lives, including decisions regarding reproductive rights and sexuality.

privilege something subject to political process.

privileges and immunities clause prevents states from discriminating against people from out of state.

probable cause reasonable belief that a crime has been committed or that there is evidence indicating so.

procedural due process a judicial standard requiring that fairness be applied to all individuals equally.

proportional representation system an election system for a legislature in which citizens vote for parties, rather than individuals, and parties are represented in the legislature according to the percentage of the vote they receive.

prospective voting casting a ballot for a candidate who promises to enact policies favored by the voter in the future.

protest a public demonstration designed to call attention to the need for change.

public interest group group that acts on behalf of the collective interests of a broad group of individuals.

public opinion the sum of individual attitudes about government, policies, and issues.

public policy the intentional use of governmental power to secure the health, welfare, opportunities, and national security of citizens.

question order the sequencing of questions in public opinion polls.

question wording the phrasing of a question in a public opinion poll.

random digit dialing the use of telephone numbers randomly generated by a computer to select potential survey respondents.

random selection a method of choosing all poll respondents in a way that does not over- or underrepresent any group of the population.

rational choice voting voting based on what a citizen believes is in his or her best interest.

realignment when the groups of people who support a political party shift their allegiance to a different political party.

redistricting states’ redrawing of boundaries of electoral districts following each census.

registration requirements the set of rules that govern who can vote and how, when, and where they vote.

regulation the process through which the federal bureaucracy makes rules that have the force of law, to carry out the laws passed by Congress.

representative democracy a political system in which voters select representatives who then vote on matters of public policy.

representative sample a sample that reflects the demographics of the population.

republic a government ruled by representatives of the people.

republicanism a system in which the government’s authority comes from the people.

reserved powers powers not given to the national government, which are retained by the states and the people.

retrospective voting voting based on an assessment of an incumbent’s past performance.

revenue sharing when the federal government apportions tax money to the states with no strings attached.

revolving door the movement of individuals between government and lobbying positions.

right something fundamental to which all have access (eg: voting).

roll-call vote a recorded vote on a bill.

rulemaking the process through which the federal bureaucracy fills in critical details of a law.

rule of law the principle that no one, including public officials, is above the law.

sample a group of individuals from a larger population used to measure public opinion.

sampling error the margin of error in a poll, which usually is calculated to plus or minus three percentage points.

scientific poll a representative poll of randomly selected respondents with a statistically significant sample size using neutral language.

selective benefit benefit available only to those who join the group.

selective incorporation the process through which the Supreme Court applies fundamental rights in the Bill of Rights to the states on a case-by-case basis.

Senate majority leader the person who has the most power in the Senate and is the head of the party with the most seats.

"separate but equal" the doctrine that racial segregation was constitutional so long as the facilities for blacks and whites were equal.

separation of powers a design of government that distributes powers across institutions in order to avoid making one branch too powerful on its own.

Shays’s Rebellion a popular uprising against the government of Massachusetts; convinced many that the central government under the Articles of Confederation may be too weak.

signing statement text issued by presidents while signing a bill into law that usually consists of political statements or reasons for signing the bill but that may also include a president’s interpretation of the law itself.

single-issue group association focusing on one specific area of public policy, often a moral issue about which they are unwilling to compromise.

single-member plurality system an election system for choosing members of the legislature where the winner is the candidate who receives the most votes, even if the candidate does not receive a majority of the votes.

slander an untrue spoken expression that injures a person’s reputation.

social contract people allow their governments to rule over them to ensure an orderly and functioning society; these citizens forego limitless rights in exchange for the protection of their natural rights (life, liberty, and property).

social insurance programs programs such as Social Security that are financed by payroll taxes paid by individuals and that do not have income-based requirements to receive their benefits.

social media forms of electronic communication that enable users to create and share content or to participate in social networking.

social movement large groups of citizens organizing for political change.

social welfare policies governmental efforts designed to improve or protect the health, safety, education, and opportunities for citizens and residents.

socioeconomic status (SES) a measure of an individual’s wealth, income, occupation, and educational attainment.

Speaker of the House the leader of the House of Representatives, chosen by an election of its members.

split-ticket voting voting for candidates from different parties in the same election.

standing the legal ability to bring a case in court.

stare decisis the practice of letting a previous legal decision stand.

State of the Union Address the annual speech from the president to Congress updating that branch on the state of national affairs.

statute a written law established by a legislative body.

straight-ticket voting voting for all of the candidates on the ballot from one political party.

suffrage the right to vote in political elections.

superdelegate usually, a party leader or activist who is not pledged to a candidate based on the outcomes of the state’s primary or caucus.

super PAC (political action committee) an organization that may spend an unlimited amount of money on a political campaign, as long as the spending is not coordinated with the campaign.

supremacy clause constitutional provision declaring that the Constitution and all national laws and treaties are the supreme law of the land.

Supreme Court the highest level of the federal judiciary, which was established in Article III of the Constitution and serves as the highest court in the nation.

swing state a state where levels of support for the parties are similar and elections swing back and forth between Democrats and Republicans.

symbolic speech protected expression in the form of images, signs, and other symbols.

Tenth Amendment reserves powers not delegated to the national government to the states and the people; the basis of federalism.

terrorism the use of violence as a means to achieve political ends.

theory of participatory democracy the belief that citizens impact policymaking through their involvement in civil society.

third party a minor political party in competition with the two major parties.

Thirteenth Amendment constitutional amendment that outlaws slavery.

Three-Fifths Compromise an agreement reached by delegates at the Constitutional Convention that a slave would count as three-fifths of a person in calculating a state’s representation.

Title IX of the Higher Education Amendments of 1972 legislation prohibiting sex discrimination in schools receiving federal aid, which had the impact of increasing female participation in sports programs.

tracking poll a survey determining the level of support for a candidate or an issue throughout a campaign.

treaty an agreement with a foreign government negotiated by the president and requiring a two-thirds vote in the Senate to ratify.

trustee role the idea that members of Congress should act as trustees, making decisions based on their knowledge and judgment.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment prohibits Congress and the states from imposing poll taxes as a condition for voting in federal elections.

Twenty-Sixth Amendment allows those eighteen years old and older to vote.

two-party system a system in which two political parties dominate politics, winning almost all elections.

tyranny of the majority when a large number of citizens use the power of their majority to trample on the rights of a smaller group.

tyranny of the minority when a small number of citizens trample on the rights of the larger population.

unanimous consent agreement an agreement in the Senate that sets the terms for consideration of a bill.

unemployment rate the percentage of people actively looking for work who cannot find jobs.

unfunded mandate federal requirement the states must follow without being provided with funding.

unicameral a one-house legislature.

unitary system a system where the central government has all of the power over subnational governments.

veto formal rejection by the president of a bill that has passed both houses of Congress.

Virginia Plan a plan of government calling for a three-branch government with a bicameral legislature, where more populous states would have more representation in Congress.

voter turnout the number of eligible voters who participate in an election as a percentage of the total number of eligible voters.

Voting Rights Act of 1965 legislation outlawing literacy tests and authorizing the Justice Department to send federal officers to register voters in uncooperative cities, counties, and states.

War Powers Resolution a law passed over President Nixon’s veto that restricts the power of the president to maintain troops in combat for more than sixty days without congressional authorization.

warrant a document issued by a judge authorizing a search.

weighting a procedure in which the survey is adjusted according to the demographics of the larger population.

whip a member of Congress, chosen by his or her party members, whose job is to ensure party unity and discipline.

winner-take-all system a system of elections in which the candidate who wins the plurality of votes within a state receives all of that state’s votes in the Electoral College.

wire service an organization that gathers and reports on news and then sells the stories to other outlets.

writ of habeas corpus the right of people detained by the government to know the charges against them.