Anatomical Features and General Information of Modern Homo sapiens (WIP)
Anatomical Features and General Information of Modern Homo sapiens (WIP)
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By Abigail Sheppard
The Homo sapiens was defined in 1735 by Carl Linnaeus. For much of recent history, instead of using morphology to define this species, we have been able to chronologically classify Homo sapiens (Schwartz 2016). Though one of the most prolific hominin species, there is no type specimen for this specific genus (Schwartz and Tattersall 2010). There has been much discourse about the phylogeny of this species as well. Multiple theories with supporting evidence have arisen, as well as modern technology to test these theories. The most common of these theories being the Multiregional Theory and the Out of Africa theory (Holt 2015). Throughout the history of Homo sapiens there is a noticeable difference that can be observed through the transition from ‘archaic’ to ‘modern’ H. sapiens (Maclatchy 2010). Changes are also observed throughout the Upper Paleolithic and Lower Paleolithic Homo sapiens populations. During the Last Glacial Maximum there is thought to be a major shift that affected the way earlier H. sapiens collected food and overall diet, directly affecting their stature, becoming shorter over time (Holt 2015). We can also infer a rise in violence with the modernization of humans. Starting in the Lower Upper Paleolithic, there is an increasing trend of violence caused injuries from sharp or blunt projectiles, this can be characterized by the increase of healed trauma and injuries to the skeletons found (Holt 2015).
Defining Homo sapiens
While having been declared a species for quite an amount of time, there is not much of a solid description, or any defining morphologies of Homo sapiens (Schwartz and Tattersall 2010). Recent testing has shown that the species appeared around the middle Pleistocene, approximately 400–700 kya, splitting from a shared ancestor with Neaderthals. While the species is distinguishable from others in the Homo genus, the lack of a clear definition and the range of variability amongst itself has led to a lot of uncertainty over what exactly is included within this species and its exact definition. This is becoming increasingly more difficult as we develop ‘archaic’ and ‘modern’ differences as well as regional differences throughout history. Skeletal traits associated with modern humans first appeared in Africa during the late middle Pleistocene–early late Pleistocene, where we see a shift into what we consider more ‘modern’ into the Holocene (Holt 2015, Maclatchy 2010). The ‘early’ or ‘archaic’, H. sapiens were slightly more robust than the more gracile ‘modern’ ones, the earlier specimens are also associated with Mousterian and Middle Age stone tools from the Later Paleolithic (Maclatchy 2010). With loose definitions for a lot of this species defining morphological features, we see a wide range of different features, and some completely missing from some specimens. An overall variation in cranial size is one of the most common differences we can still see today (Schwartz and Tattersall 2010). As well as physical changes, the species is also defined by its environmental and cognitive changes occurring alongside the morphological ones we observe. With an increased geographic range and trading we see an abundance of personal adornment and specialization in skills, crafting, and collection start to arise, we can see that specifically in tool making production as well as resource collection (Maclatchy 2010). Cultural practices such as funerary practices, written and spoken languages, religion and ideologies, symbolism, tool and item making, as well as the previously mentioned geographic changes with home bases and specific regional communities begin to occur as well.
Morphologies
Key defining features of Homo sapiens include (Holt 2015, Maclatchy 2010, Schwartz 2016, Stringer 2016);
Erect posture and vertical vertebral column
Broad, flat, bowl-shaped pelvis
Long thumbs
Large and non-opposable big toes
Smaller canines and incisors, presence of a canine fossa
Larger braincase with high and round cranial vault/endocranial capacity(around 1350 cc)
Overall reduction in cranial robustness
Vertical forehead
Small, non-projecting face with a more gracile jaw and the presence of a chin
Small, separated brow ridges
Longer limbs, with legs proportionally longer than arms
Overall more gracile with short and narrow trunks
Distinctive Morphologies
As dispersal to different regions happened, so did slight morphological changes, and through time Homo sapiens have evolved to have some noticeable differences amongst themselves today. Regional morphologies amongst the species happened as climatic changes affected the populations. This has caused there to be distinctive variable morphologies among modern Homo sapiens, most notably in the nasal aperture and overall body morphology. Nasal apertures are found to be narrower in colder, drier climates, leading to more moisture when breathing in (Ruff 1994). Trunk and limb proportions are also seemingly affected by climate as well, the closer to the equator populations are, we see longer extremities and narrower trunk proportions are recorded (Holt 2015, Ruff 1994). Bipart brows are a distinctive H. sapiens trait, as well as something we see used by bioarchaeologists to sex modern males and females. There is a thinner appearance to the brow ridge in females compared to males, whose middle appears more robust with the supraorbital margin having a flatter and blunter end (Schwartz 2016).
Phylogeny
Homo sapiens are the end of the current hominin phylogeny, but where and who did they come from? The exact phylogeny of Homo sapiens is still in discourse today, with there being a small number of theories and models heavily supported today. Unlike previously thought, there were species that lived amongst Homo sapiens and even interbred with them. Genetic evidence has shown us that these species included Neanderthals and Denisovans, which the exact split, from who and where, is still in discussion today. Many theories seem to take a lineage-based approach, concluding Homo heidelbergensis or Homo erectus to most commonly be the ancestor of Homo sapiens. We can see that H. sapiens split from Neanderthals around 400-600 kya, earlier than we thought, and from what species we still do not know (Stringer 2016). With modern research, and the expanse of Homo sapiens history, it seems quite a handful of today's researchers and scientists think there is enough evidence to reorganize and reconstruct not only hominin phylogeny, but specifically Homo sapiens. The vast expanse or morphological criteria created and modified to cover the differences between early H. sapiens and today's living ones seems to almost create issues when describing the species overall profile.
Here will contain some phylogeny trees/visuals for H. sapiens
Specimen Info
Liujiang Man
Images, 3-D scans/models, links to in depth sites
Descriptions: Name/Number/Nickname, site location, paleo archaeologist, description of specimen, highlighted morphologies, importance to research/record
Skhul V
Images, 3-D scans/models, links to in depth sites
Descriptions: Name/Number/Nickname, site location, paleo archaeologist, description of specimen, highlighted morphologies, importance to research/record
Cro-Magnon 1
Images, 3-D scans/models, links to in depth sites
Descriptions: Name/Number/Nickname, site location, paleo archaeologist, description of specimen, highlighted morphologies, importance to research/record
Ötzi the Iceman
Images, 3-D scans/models, links to in depth sites
Descriptions: Name/Number/Nickname, site location, paleo archaeologist, description of specimen, highlighted morphologies, importance to research/record
Modern Collections and Their Use
Different collections around the world, who they are, how old they are, where they are located, how they were obtained, why and who uses/studies them, what can we learn, ect...
Hoping to put together a better section on current regional morphological variations among modern H. sapiens or a section showing key differences between the modern species and previous ancestors
Sources
Dorey, Fran. “Homo Sapiens – Modern Humans.” The Australian Museum, October 16, 2020. https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-sapiens-modern-humans/.
Holt, Brigitte M. “Anatomically Modern Homo Sapiens.” In Basics in Human Evolution, 177–92. Elsevier, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-802652-6.00013-x.
Maclatchy, Laura M., Jeremy Desilva, William J. Sanders, and Bernard Wood. “Hominini.” In Cenozoic Mammals of Africa, 471–540. University of California Press, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520257214.003.0025.
Ruff, Christopher B. “Morphological Adaptation to Climate in Modern and Fossil Hominids.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 37, no. S19 (1994): 65–107. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330370605.
Schwartz, Jeffrey H., and Ian Tattersall. “Fossil Evidence for the Origin of Homo Sapiens.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 143, no. S51 (2010): 94–121. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21443.
The Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. “Homo Sapiens.” The Smithsonian Institution’s Human Origins Program, January 2024. https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-sapiens.
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