Writing About Race

Below are selected entries from a topical guide published by The Associated Press.

AAPI, Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders: The acronym is widely used by people within these communities but is not as well known outside of them. Spell out the full term; use AAPI only in direct quotations and explain the term.

African American: No hyphen for this and other dual-heritage terms. Acceptable for an American Black person of African descent. The terms are not necessarily interchangeable. Americans of Caribbean heritage, for example, generally refer to themselves as Caribbean American. Follow a person's preference.

anti-Asian sentiment: Avoid this euphemism, which conveys little meaning. Alternatives may include anti-Asian bias, anti-Asian harassment, anti-Asian comments, anti-Asian racism, or anti-Asian violence, depending on the situation.

Arab American: No hyphen for this and other dual-heritage terms. Acceptable for an American of Arab descent. When possible, refer to a person's country of origin or follow the person's preference. For example: Lebanese American or Egyptian American.

Although most Arabs worldwide are Muslim, many Arab Americans are not.

Don't assume that everyone from a predominantly Arab country identifies as Arab; ask them.

Arab Americans are classified as white by the U.S. government on federal forms and in the census. Many Arab Americans reject that classification, saying it does not reflect their life experiences or the way they are regarded in American society. Some argue it renders their communities invisible.

As a result, many Arab Americans simply check "other" on forms. Arab American organizations say that contributes to what they say is a chronic undercounting of their numbers in America.

Asian American: Acceptable for an American of Asian descent. When possible, refer to a person’s country of origin or follow the person’s preference. For example: Filipino American or Indian American. Do not describe Pacific Islanders as Asian Americans, Asians, or of Asian descent. Avoid using Asian as shorthand for Asian American.

biracial, multiracial: Acceptable, when clearly relevant, to describe people with more than one racial heritage. Usually more useful when describing large, diverse groups of people than individuals. Avoid mixed-race, unless a story subject prefers the term. Be specific, if possible, and then use biracial for people of two heritages or multiracial for those of two or more on subsequent references if needed. Examples: She has an African American father and a white mother instead of She is biracial. But: The study of biracial people showed a split in support along gender lines. Multiracial can encompass people of any combination of races.

Black (adj.): Use the capitalized term as an adjective in a racial, ethnic, or cultural sense: Black people, Black culture, Black literature, Black studies, Black colleges. African American is also acceptable for those in the U.S. The terms are not necessarily interchangeable. Americans of Caribbean heritage, for example, generally refer to themselves as Caribbean American. Follow an individual’s preference, if known, and be specific when possible and relevant. Minneapolis has a large Somali American population because of refugee resettlement. The author is Senegalese American.

Note: Use of the capitalized Black recognizes that language has evolved, along with the common understanding that, especially in the United States, the term reflects a shared identity and culture rather than a skin color alone.

Black Lives Matter, #BlackLivesMatter: A global movement launched in 2013 after the acquittal in the killing of Trayvon Martin with a goal to eradicate systemic racism and white supremacy and to oppose violence committed against Black people. Either Black Lives Matter as a noun or the Black Lives Matter movement is acceptable. BLM is acceptable on second reference. 

Some respond to the Black Lives Matter movement by saying "all lives matter" or "blue lives matter," the latter in reference to police officers. Neither is a formal movement, so lowercase and enclose in quotes.

Black(s), white(s) (n.): Do not use either term as a singular or plural noun. Instead, use phrasing such as Black people, white people, Black teachers, white students. Black and white are acceptable as adjectives when relevant.

brown (adj.): Avoid this broad and imprecise term in racial, ethnic, or cultural references unless as part of a direct quotation. Interpretations of what the term includes vary widely.

Caucasian: Avoid as a synonym for white, unless in a quotation.

Civil Rights Movement: Capitalize when referring to the specific push, mainly in the 1950s and ’60s, for equal rights and justice for Black people under the law in the United States. Lowercase when writing generally about civil rights movements or a civil rights movement that is not this specific one.

critical race theory: An academic framework dating to the 1970s that centers on the idea that racism is systemic in the nation's institutions and that those institutions maintain the dominance of white people. The theory is a way of analyzing American history through the lens of racism. It has become a catch-all political buzzword for any teaching in schools about race and American history, and a rallying cry for some conservatives who take issue with how schools have addressed diversity and inclusion. The theory itself is not a fixture of K-12 education.

Those opposed to critical race theory say it divides society by defining people as oppressors and oppressed based on their race. They call it an attempt to rewrite American history and make white people believe they are inherently racist.

Explain the term when used. Don't use CRT on later references.

dual heritage: No hyphen for terms such as African American, Asian American, and Filipino American, used when relevant to refer to an American person’s heritage. The terms are less common when used to describe non-Americans, but may be used when relevant: Turkish German for a German of Turkish descent.

Hispanic: A person from – or whose ancestors were from – a Spanish-speaking land or culture. Latino, Latina, or Latinx are sometimes preferred. Follow the person’s preference. Use a more specific identification when possible, such as Cuban, Puerto Rican, or Mexican American.

historically Black colleges and universities: U.S. colleges and universities established before 1964 with the mission of educating Black Americans. The schools were founded at a time when Black students were barred from many institutions that served white people. Before these accredited, degree-granting institutions were created, no structured higher education system for Black students existed. There are approximately 100 such schools now, and they admit students of any race.

HBCUs is acceptable on second reference and in headlines. HBCU is acceptable as a modifier on second reference: HBCU students. Refer to an individual school as a historically Black college or a historically Black university. Don't use HBCU for one college or university.

Indigenous (adj.): Capitalize this term used to refer to original inhabitants of a place.

Indigenous peoples: Groupings of people who are the original inhabitants of their countries. Use peoples when referring to multiple Indigenous groups. Use people when referring to multiple individuals from different Indigenous groups.

Juneteenth, June 19: The traditional commemoration date of the emancipation of enslaved people in the United States. On June 17, 2021, President Joe Biden signed legislation making it a U.S. federal holiday. The holiday also has been called Juneteenth Independence Day or Freedom Day.

Latino, Latina, Latinx: Latino is often the preferred noun or adjective for a person from, or whose ancestors were from, a Spanish-speaking land or culture or from Latin America. Latina is the feminine form. Some prefer the recently coined gender-inclusive term Latinx, which should be confined to quotations, names of organizations, or descriptions of individuals who request it and should be accompanied by a short explanation. Hernandez prefers the gender-inclusive term Latinx. For groups of females, use the plural Latinas; for groups of males or of mixed gender, use the plural Latinos. Hispanics is also generally acceptable for those in the United States. Use a more specific identification when possible, such as Cuban, Puerto Rican, Brazilian, or Mexican American.

minority, racial minority: The term is acceptable as an adjective in broad references to multiple races other than white in the United States: We will hire more members of minority groups. 

Be sure the term is accurate in each circumstance, since what constitutes a racial minority varies by location.

Be specific whenever possible by referring to, for instance, Black Americans, Chinese Americans or members of the Seminole Tribe of Florida. Examples: The poll found that Black and Latino Americans are bearing the brunt of the pandemic's financial impact, not minorities are bearing the brunt of the pandemic's financial impact. Most of the magazine's readers are Black women, not most of the magazine's readers are minority women.

Do not use minority as a noun in the singular. Limit use of the plural minorities unless needed for reasons of space or sentence construction. Phrasing such as minority students or minority groups is preferable.

Native, Natives: The term Natives is acceptable on second reference for Native Americans. The term Native is acceptable as an adjective — Native music, Native art — but if the story is not generally about Native Americans, use Native American music, Native American art, etc. 

Native Americans, Indigenous people/peoples: Generally use the term Native Americans in broad references when referring to two or more people of different tribal affiliations within the contiguous U.S. geographic boundaries.

Do not use the term Native American for an individual; see below for detail on more specificity when referring to one person or to citizens of the same tribe.

The term Natives is acceptable on second reference.

The term American Indians is generally considered outdated. However, some tribal citizens may use the term in reference to themselves, other tribal citizens, or organizations. And it may appear in some legal contexts and organization names. It is acceptable in those contexts.

The term Indigenous people(s) is a broad umbrella term, describing the original inhabitants of a place globally. The term does not capture the political relationship or political status of Native American tribes or people, so use it only when the broad description is accurate.

Do not use phrasing such as a Native American or Native Americans (or an Indigenous person) for individuals or for citizens of a single tribe. Instead, specify the proper name of the tribe and the person’s connection to the tribe. If that information is not immediately available, try to obtain it.

Some tribes and tribal nations use member; others use citizen. Try to determine the correct term in each case. If that can’t be determined, use citizen.

Do not use possessive language such as Canada’s Indigenous people, Oklahoma’s Native American tribes, or South Dakota’s Pine Ridge Reservation. Instead: Indigenous people in Canada; Native American tribes in Oklahoma; the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota. The possessive form may be used for Native Hawaiians, however.

Indian is used to describe the peoples and cultures of the South Asian nation of India. Do not use the term as a shorthand for Native Americans, either a single person or a group.

Orient, Oriental: Do not use when referring to East Asian nations and their peoples. Asian is the acceptable term for an inhabitant of those regions.

Pacific Islander: Used to describe the Indigenous people of the Pacific Islands, including but not limited to Hawaii, Guam, and Samoa. Should be used for people who are ethnically Pacific Islander, not for those who happen to live in the Pacific Islands. Be specific about which communities you are referring to whenever possible. Do not use Asian Pacific Islander unless referring to Pacific Islanders of Asian descent. Do not describe Pacific Islanders as Asian Americans, Asians, or of Asian descent.

people of color: The term is acceptable when necessary in broad references to multiple races other than white: We will hire more people of color. Nine playwrights of color collaborated on the script. Be aware, however, that many people of various races object to the term for various reasons, including that it lumps together into one monolithic group anyone who isn’t white.

Be specific whenever possible by referring to, for instance, Black Americans, Chinese Americans, or members of the Seminole Tribe of Florida. Examples: The poll found that Black and Latino Americans are bearing the brunt of the pandemic’s financial impact, not People of color are bearing the brunt of the pandemic’s financial impact. Most of the magazine’s readers are Black women, not Most of the magazine’s readers are women of color.

In some cases, other wording may be appropriate. Examples: people from various racial and ethnic backgrounds; diverse groups; various heritages; different cultures.

Do not use person of color for an individual.

Do not use the term Black, Indigenous, and people of color, which some see as more inclusive by distinguishing the experiences of Black and Indigenous people but others see as less inclusive by diminishing the experiences of everyone else. Similarly, do not use the term Black, Asian, and minority ethnic. Do not use the shorthand POC, BIPOC, or BAME unless necessary in a direct quotation; when used, explain it.

racist, racism: Racism is a set of attitudes, beliefs, and actions asserting racial differences in character, intelligence, etc., and asserting the superiority of one race over another, or racial discrimination or feelings of hatred or bigotry toward people of another race.

The terms systemic racism, structural racism, and institutional racism refer to social, political, and institutional systems and cultures that contribute to racial inequality in areas such as employment, health care, housing, the criminal justice system, and education. Avoid shortening this use to simply racism, to avoid confusion with the other definition.

Some use the term racist to refer to anyone who benefits from systemic racism and doesn’t actively work to dismantle it. Avoid this use unless essential in a direct quotation; if used, explain it.

If racist is not the appropriate term, give careful thought to how best to describe the situation. Depending on the specifics of what was said or done, alternatives may include xenophobic, bigoted, biased, nativist, racially divisive, or in some cases, simply racial.

Avoid racially charged, racially motivated or racially tinged, euphemisms which convey little meaning.

reverse discrimination: A term sometimes used to describe bias or perceived bias against majority groups. Limit its use to quotes; generally, just discrimination will suffice to describe such allegations or practices.

Stop AAPI Hate: A movement that was launched in March 2020 in response to a rise in anti-Asian bias and racism stemming from the coronavirus pandemic that originated in China. The Asian Pacific Planning and Policy Council, Chinese for Affirmative Action, and the Asian American Studies Department of San Francisco State University created a reporting center under the name Stop AAPI Hate to track and respond to cases of hate, violence, harassment, and discrimination against Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in the United States. Some prefer to use the hashtag #StopAsianHate.

tipi (not teepee): A traditional dwelling among Native Americans in the northern Great Plains region.

transracial: The term should not be used to describe people who have adopted a different racial identity.