The Long Walls

Introduction

The “Long Walls” connected the city center of Athens with the harbors of Piraeus and Phaleron. They were a major element in Athenian naval strategy, since they safely connected the land-locked Athens with its fortified harbors. They were, "land oriented structures with a decidedly maritime purpose." (Conwell 2008, 60)

Dimensions

Two parallel walls (a north and a south wall), laid about 180 meters apart from one another, connected Athens and Piraeus
- Thucydides (2.13.9) claims that the North and South Long Walls (to Piraeus) were each 8 kilometers in length (40 stades), but modern scholars note that the combined length was only 13.6 kilometers
  - The Southern Long Wall was about 1 kilometer shorter than the Northern (Garland 1987, 167)
- Connected to the Themistoklean Walls around Athens (the "Legs")
Another wall, about 5.94 kilometers long, connected Athens with Phaleron (Conwell 2008, 4)
Area between the Phaleric Wall and the northern wall to Piraeus was 11.86 square kilometers (roughly twice William & Mary's campus area), and area between the two Piraeus walls was only 1.51 square kilometers
Minimum thickness of 3.9 meters (Garland 1987, 168)

Appearance

In some periods, parts of the wall were made of "well-cut, squared blocks" (Camp 2001, 68); Conwell (2008, 196) suggests that in other periods, the walls had a mudbrick superstructure and a stone substructure
Outer walls fortified with defensive towers
Roofing began in Phase III (ca. 338), and was one of the primary aims of Phase IV (late 4th c BCE)

(Photo from Garland 1987)

Timeline and Major Events

477- Delian League established

462/1 - Athens begins construction of the Long Walls, probably in anticipation of conflict with Sparta (Phase 1a)

Secure the connection between Athens and its harbors (Thucydides I.107.1)
- Protect the coming and going of troops, supplies, and communications between Athens and its harbors during a siege
- Remove some of threat that an occupying Spartan force might pose to the astu- but the real success of the fortifications depended on the strength of the Athenian navy (Fowler 2019, 97)

458/7 - Construction completed on northern wall to Piraeus and a wall connecting Athens to Phaleron (Phase 1a)

The Walls' construction signaled to Sparta and the rest of the Greek world that Athens', "pursuit of an expansionist role in the Aegean was not to be curbed by pressures from the mainland." (Garland 1987, 24)

454- Delian League moved to Athens

Circa 443/2- Construction on the southern wall to Piraeus (Phase 1b)

Served as a secondary line of defense- maintained fortified connection to a harbor in the event that one of the outer walls was breached (Conwell 2008, 75)
- Provided necessary backup in the event of an amphibious attack (Fowler 2010, 96)
Additional fortifications around Piraeus demonstrate that harbor’s growing strategic importance (and Phaleron’s corresponding decline) (Garland 1987, 25)

431- Beginning of the Peloponnesian War

431-421- Archidamian War

430-429- Athenian Plague

430s- Regular maintenance on the walls during the early years of the Peloponnesian War

415-413- Sicilian Expedition (major setback to Athenian naval power and general military strength)

Athenians likely abandon the Phaleric Wall after 413, seeking to consolidate their forces after a disastrous defeat

405- End of Peloponnesian War (naval defeat at Aigospotamoi)

Only the Athens-Piraeus Walls are still guarded and functioning by that date (Xenophon); Phaleric Wall was abandoned sometime between 431 and 407 (likely after the Sicilian Expedition)
Spartan attacks/sieges on the walls demonstrate that their importance to Athenian strategy was broadly understood

404- Surrender terms with Sparta require the demilitarization and (partial?) destruction of the Walls

Not totally razed- some ancient sources attest that foundations were still visible, and Conwell (2008) argues that the sheer logistics of dismantling miles of stone walls render their total destruction unlikely
- Terms of surrender also dictate the downsizing of the Athenian navy- without naval support, the walls are a flawed defense mechanism anyway

395/4- Athenians begin re-constructing the walls to Piraeus (1a wall to Phaleron remains abandoned) (Xenophon, Hellenica IV.8.9-10)

392/1- Work almost completed (or completed) on the Phase II walls to Piraeus

Subsidized by Persian assistance; work performed by laborers from Konon's fleet (Garland 1987, 37-40)

338- Battle of Chaironeia prompts the reinforcement of the Piraeus walls (Phase III)

New siege techniques and technology minimize the Phase II walls' overall efficacy

338-334- Extended construction and fortification work on the walls to Piraeus

Extensive work- replace the Phase II walls with fortifications of cut stone blocks

- Some sections of the walls might have even been roofed for additional protection
Phase II and Phase III walls were never actually, "employed in conjunction with the naval strategy which justified their construction" (Conwell 2008, 159)

307/6- Restoration of the Long Walls by Demochares

Mid 280s- Archaeological evidence suggests that the Long Walls were obsolete and probably abandoned by this period

Historical evidence suggests that they might not have been used after 290

168- Aemilius Paulus supposedly visits Athens and admires the deteriorating Long Walls, among other architectural/engineering marvels of the city (Livy)

87/6- Sulla tears apart sections of the remaining walls in order to use their materials (stone, earth, wood) for his siege of Piraeus

Travelers throughout the Roman period, the Middle Ages, and the Early Modern period record seeing the ruins of the Long Walls. Their monumentality and longstanding historical significance made them a popular destination for centuries.

Important People

According to Plutarch (a much later source), Kimon began construction on the earliest phase of the Walls (1a). However, many scholars point to his politics, the timeframe of his ostracism, the questionable nature of Plutarch’s testimony, and Thucydides’ contradictory account in order to raise doubt about Kimon’s involvement in the earliest stages. (Garland, 1987, 24) Others believe that construction might have begun under Kimon, but that it slowed down and was resumed in a later period (462/1).
Perikles implemented a tremendously important military strategy after the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War that utilized the Long Walls (phases 1a and 1b). Ordinarily, the Athenians would only abandon the countryside if they were forced out after a failed military confrontation. Under Perikles’ strategy, the Athenians planned to abandon their fields and countrysides and retreat to the fortified astu as a first option. While they consolidated their general population within the walls, the Athenian military was able to concentrate its attention on their naval forces. This allowed Athens to maintain its primacy over naval operations, while acknowledging Spartan ground superiority. (Thucydides I.143.4 - I.144.1)
Xenophon writes that Konon lead the efforts to reconstruct and reinforce the Long Walls (Phase II) after the naval battle of Cnidus. (4.8.1-9) Men from Konon's fleet worked as laborers on the reconstruction project. (Garland, 1987, 40)
A disastrous confrontation with Philip of Macedon in 338 at Chaironeia prompted Athenians to reinforce their fortifications (Phase 3). This began the third phase of construction on the Long Walls. Between 337 and roughly 334, the Athenians shored up existing urban fortifications and the walls linking the city to Piraeus.
Demochares led the fourth and final campaign to fortify the Long Walls linking Athens to Piraeus. This phase reinforced and expanded upon the Phase 3 walls, rather than completely rebuilding them. By that point, however, the Athenian navy was not strong enough to render the walls an effective strategy for defending the city.

Historical Accounts

Thucydides is likely the most descriptive contemporary source. In his History of the Peloponnesian War, he describes the origins of the walls, gives an overview of the Periklean strategy, and discusses the purpose and efficacy of the fortifications at several other points throughout the text.

Xenophon wrote about developments in the Long Walls towards the end of the Peloponnesian War, including various phases of destruction and re-fortification. His contemporary account picks up where Thucydides' leaves off.

Plutarch wrote about the earliest phase of the walls, asserting that Kimon was responsible for their construction. "And it is said," he wrote, "that, though the building of the long walls, called "legs," was completed afterwards, yet their first foundations, where the work was obstructed by swamps and marshes, were stayed up securely by Cimon, who dumped vast quantities of rubble and heavy stones into the swamps, meeting the expenses himself." (Life of Cimon, 13.7) Some scholars raise questions about this account, as discussed in "Important People." (See Garland 1987, 24 for objection)

Livy wrote about Aemilius Paulus' visit to Athens in 168 BCE, where he saw the Long Walls. He wrote that "this city is full of the traditions of its ancient glory, but it nevertheless possesses many things worth seeing," including, "the walls connecting the city with the Piraeus and the dockyards." (45.27.11)

Pausanias records seeing, "the ruins of the walls which Conon restored after the naval battle off Cnidus" in his Descriptions of Greece. (1.2.2) This is obviously a much later source, but shows the monumentality of the walls. Even as they fell into disrepair, they continued to have a tremendous significance in the ancient collective memory.

Archaeological Evidence

Today, the walls are largely hidden under modern suburbs. The only known remains are from the walls connecting Athens and Piraeus; nothing has been found from the wall connecting Athens to Phaleron. (Conwell 2008, 3)

The archaeological remains of the walls consist entirely of the stone substructures of the walls to Piraeus. These images show the modern remains of the Long Walls, and are labeled according to their phase (see timeline for approximate dates). They show the different styles of masonry construction in the foundations

Images in the righthand column come from Conwell 2008. Image below comes from Garland 1987.

Significance and Conclusions

The Long Walls began as strategically significant fortifications and ultimately became a potent symbol. The Long Walls were important to both the onset and denouement of the Peloponnesian War. They were a physical manifestation of Athenian strength and authority, as demonstrated by the Spartan demand that they be destroyed after the Athenian surrender. They simultaneously reinforced and depended on the strength of the Athenian navy, ensuring that their overall importance fluctuated as the authority of the Athenian military did. While the walls were reinforced and rebuilt for more than a century after the Peloponnesian War, the development of more effective siege tactics and a diminished Athenian navy ensured that they were never again the lynchpin in Athenian military strategy. However, long-lasting interest in the Long Walls from later travelers to Attica indicates that they were a monument in their own right. To later visitors, the walls represented Athens at its height and their gradual deterioration into ruins made them quasi-relics.

Bibliography and Image Sources

Images

Athens. City Wall. Map: Long Walls Joining Athens to Piraeus during Kimon's Tenure. Accessed March 31, 2021. doi:10.2307/community.12209230.

Bust of Pericles bearing the inscription “Pericles, son of Xanthippus, Athenian”. Marble, Roman copy after a Greek original from ca. 430 BC., from the Vatican Museum.

Gomme, Arnold Wycombe. “Thucydides.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed April 26, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thucydides-Greek-historian.

Tuplin, Christopher J. “Xenophon.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed April 26, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Xenophon.

Secondary Sources

Camp, John M. The Archaeology of Athens. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.

Conwell, David H. Connecting a City to the Sea : The History of the Athenian Long Walls. Leiden: BRILL, 2008.

Fowler, Michael Anthony. "“Consider, if we were Islanders…” (Thuc. 1.143.5): Thalassocracy, the Long Walls, and the Insularization of Athens." Order No. 1476049, Tufts University, 2010.

Garland, Robert. The Piraeus: From the Fifth to the First Century B.C. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987.

Sterling, Brent L. Do Good Fences Make Good Neighbors? : What History Teaches Us about Strategic Barriers and International Security. Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2009.

Primary Sources

Xenophon, Hellenica

Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War

Pausanias, Descriptions of Greece

Livy, History of Rome

Plutarch, Life of Cimon

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