LITERARY DEVICES

Literary devices are techniques that writers use to create a special and pointed effect in their writing, to convey information, and/or to help the reader understand the piece on a deeper level. These devices are often used for emphasis or clarity; they are also used to get the reader to more strongly connect with either the story as a whole or specific characters, themes, etc.

Knowing what literary devices are, as well as what kinds there are, helps you understand the author’s motivation behind the choices she's made when crafting the work. For example, being able to identify symbols in a story can help you figure out why the author might have chosen to insert these focal points and what these might suggest in regard to the author’s attitude toward certain characters, plot points, events, and so on.

Secondly, being able to identify literary devices can make a written work's overall meaning or purpose clearer to you. For instance, say you recently read The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobeby C.S. Lewis. By knowing that this particular book is a religious allegory with references to Christ (represented by the character Aslan) and Judas (represented by Edmund), you'd be able to clearly see why Lewis made certain events happen and certain characters the way they are.

Finally, literary devices are important to know because they make texts more interesting and more fun to read. If you were to read a novel without knowing any literary devices, chances are that you wouldn’t be able to detect (and thus appreciate) any of the layers of depth and meaning interwoven into the story via different devices.

Allegory

An allegory is a story that is used to represent a more general message about real-life (historical) issues and/or events. It is typically an entire book, novel, play, etc.

Example: George Orwell’s dystopian book Animal Farm is an allegory for the events preceding the Russian Revolution and the Stalinist era in early 20th century Russia. In the story, animals on a farm practice animalism, which is essentially communism. Many characters correspond to actual historical figures: Old Major represents both the founder of communism Karl Marx and the Russian communist leader Vladimir Lenin; the farmer, Mr. Jones, is the Russian Czar; the boar Napoleon stands for Joseph Stalin; and the pig Snowball represents Leon Trotsky.

Alliteration

Alliteration is a series of words or phrases that all (or almost all) start with the same sound. These sounds are typically consonants to give more stress to that syllable. You’ll often come across alliteration in poetry, titles of books and poems (Jane Austen is a fan of this device, for example—just look at Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility), and tongue twisters.

Example: "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers." In this tongue twister, the "p" sound is repeated at the beginning of all major words.

Allusion

Allusion is when an author makes an indirect reference to a figure, place, event, or idea originating from outside the text. Many allusions make reference to previous works of literature or art.

Example: "Stop acting so smart—it’s not like you’re Einstein or something." This is an allusion to the famous real-life theoretical physicist Albert Einstein.

Anachronism

An anachronism occurs when there is an (intentional) error in the chronology or timeline of a text. This could be a character who appears in a different time period than when he actually lived, or a technology that appears before it was invented. Anachronisms are often used for comedic effect.

Example: A Renaissance king who says, "That’s dope, dude!" would be an anachronism, since this type of language is very modern and not actually from the Renaissance period.

Colloquialism

Colloquialism is the use of informal language and slang. It's often used by authors to lend a sense of realism to their characters and dialogue. Forms of colloquialism include words, phrases, and contractions that aren't real words (such as "gonna" and "ain’t").

Example: "Hey, what’s up, man?" This piece of dialogue is an example of a colloquialism, since it uses common everyday words and phrases, namely "what’s up" and "man."

Epigraph

An epigraph is when an author inserts a famous quotation, poem, song, or other short passage or text at the beginning of a larger text (e.g., a book, chapter, etc.). An epigraph is typically written by a different writer (with credit given) and used as a way to introduce overarching themes or messages in the work. Some pieces of literature, such as Herman Melville’s 1851 novel Moby-Dick, incorporate multiple epigraphs throughout.

Example: At the beginning of Ernest Hemingway’s book The Sun Also Rises is an epigraph that consists of a quotation from poet Gertrude Stein, which reads, "You are all a lost generation," and a passage from the Bible.

Hemingway, deep in thought about what quotation to choose for his epigraph.

Euphemism

A euphemism is when a more mild or indirect word or expression is used in place of another word or phrase that is considered harsh, blunt, vulgar, or unpleasant.

Example: "I’m so sorry, but he didn’t make it." The phrase "didn’t make it" is a more polite and less blunt way of saying that someone has died.

Flashback

A flashback is an interruption in a narrative that depicts events that have already occurred, either before the present time or before the time at which the narration takes place. This device is often used to give the reader more background information and details about specific characters, events, plot points, and so on.

Example: Most of the novel Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë is a flashback from the point of view of the housekeeper, Nelly Dean, as she engages in a conversation with a visitor named Lockwood. In this story, Nelly narrates Catherine Earnshaw's and Heathcliff's childhoods, the pair's budding romance, and their tragic demise.

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is when an author indirectly hints at—through things such as dialogue, description, or characters’ actions—what’s to come later on in the story. This device is often used to introduce tension to a narrative.

Example: Say you’re reading a fictionalized account of Amelia Earhart. Before she embarks on her (what we know to be unfortunate) plane ride, a friend says to her, "Be safe. Wouldn’t want you getting lost—or worse." This line would be an example of foreshadowing because it implies that something bad ("or worse") will happen to Earhart.

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement that's not meant to be taken literally by the reader. It is often used for comedic effect and/or emphasis.

Example: "I’m so hungry I could eat a horse." The speaker will not literally eat an entire horse (and most likely couldn’t), but this hyperbole emphasizes how starved the speaker feels.

Idiom

An Idiom is an expression whose meaning is not predictable from the usual meanings of its constituent elements, as kick the bucket, or hang one's head.

Imagery

Imagery is when an author describes a scene, thing, or idea so that it appeals to our senses (taste, smell, sight, touch, or hearing). This device is often used to help the reader clearly visualize parts of the story by creating a strong mental picture.

Example: Here’s an example of imagery taken from William Wordsworth’s famous poem "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud":

When all at once I saw a crowd,

A host of golden Daffodils;

Beside the Lake, beneath the trees,

Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Irony

Irony is when a statement is used to express an opposite meaning than the one literally expressed by it. There are three types of irony in literature:

• Verbal irony: When someone says something but means the opposite (similar to sarcasm).

• Situational irony: When something happens that's the opposite of what was expected or intended to happen.

• Dramatic irony: When the audience is aware of the true intentions or outcomes, while the characters are not. As a result, certain actions and/or events take on different meanings for the audience than they do for the characters involved.

Examples:

• Verbal irony: One example of this type of irony can be found in Edgar Allan Poe’s "The Cask of Amontillado." In this short story, a man named Montresor plans to get revenge on another man named Fortunato. As they toast, Montresor says, "And I, Fortunato—I drink to your long life." This statement is ironic because we the readers already know by this point that Montresor plans to kill Fortunato.

• Situational irony: A girl wakes up late for school and quickly rushes to get there. As soon as she arrives, though, she realizes that it’s Saturday and there is no school.

• Dramatic irony: In William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Romeo commits suicide in order to be with Juliet; however, the audience (unlike poor Romeo) knows that Juliet is not actually dead—just asleep.

Poe was a fan of irony—and ravens.

Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition is the comparing and contrasting of two or more different (usually opposite) ideas, characters, objects, etc. This literary device is often used to help create a clearer picture of the characteristics of one object or idea by comparing it with those of another.

Example: One of the most famous literary examples of juxtaposition is the opening passage from Charles Dickens’ novel A Tale of Two Cities:

"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair …"

Malapropism

Malapropism happens when an incorrect word is used in place of a word that has a similar sound. This misuse of the word typically results in a statement that is both nonsensical and humorous; as a result, this device is commonly used in comedic writing.

Example: "I just can't wait to dance the flamingo!" Here, a character has accidentally called the flamenco (a type of dance) the flamingo (an animal).

Metaphor/Simile

Metaphors are when ideas, actions, or objects are described in non-literal terms. In short, it’s when an author compares one thing to another. The two things being described usually share something in common but are unalike in all other respects.

A simile is a type of metaphor in which an object, idea, character, action, etc., is compared to another thing using the words "as" or "like."

Both metaphors and similes are often used in writing for clarity or emphasis.

Examples:

"What light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun." In this line from Romeo and Juliet, Romeo compares Juliet to the sun. However, because Romeo doesn’t use the words "as" or "like," it is not a simile—just a metaphor.

"She is as vicious as a lion." Since this statement uses the word "as" to make a comparison between "she" and "a lion," it is a simile.

Metonym

A metonym is when a related word or phrase is substituted for the actual thing to which it's referring. This device is usually used for poetic or rhetorical effect.

Example: "The pen is mightier than the sword." This statement, which was coined by Edward Bulwer-Lytton in 1839, contains two examples of metonymy: "the pen" refers to "the written word," and "the sword" refers to "military force/violence."

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a word (or group of words) that represents a sound and actually resembles or imitates the sound it stands for. It is often used for dramatic, realistic, or poetic effect.

Examples: Buzz, boom, chirp, creak, sizzle, zoom, etc.

Oxymoron

An oxymoron is a combination of two words that, together, express a contradictory meaning. This device is often used for emphasis, for humor, to create tension, or to illustrate a paradox (see next entry for more information on paradoxes).

Examples: Deafening silence, organized chaos, cruelly kind, insanely logical, etc.

The Penrose stairs = a classic example of a paradox. Are they going up or down?!

Paradox

A paradox is a statement that appears illogical or self-contradictory but, upon investigation, might actually be true or plausible.

Note that a paradox is different from an oxymoron: a paradox is an entire phrase or sentence,whereas an oxymoron is a combination of just two words.

Example: Here's a famous paradoxical sentence: "This statement is false." If the statement is true, then it isn’t actually false (as it suggests). But if it’s false, then the statement is true! Thus, this statement is a paradox because it is both true and false at the same time.

Personification

Personification is when a nonhuman figure or other abstract concept or element is given human-like qualities or characteristics. It is used to help the reader create a clearer mental picture of the scene or object being described.

Example: "The wind moaned, beckoning me to come outside." In this example, the wind—a nonhuman element—is being described as if it is human (it "moans" and "beckons").

Repetition

Repetition is when a word or phrase is written multiple times, usually for the purpose of emphasis. It is often used in poetry (for purposes of rhythm as well).

Example: When Lin-Manuel Miranda, who wrote the score for the hit musical Hamilton, gave his speech at the 2016 Tony’s, he recited a poem he’d written that included the following line:

And love is love is love is love is love is love is love is love cannot be killed or swept aside.

Soliloquy

A type of monologue that's often used in dramas, a soliloquy is when a character speaks aloud to himself (and to the audience), thereby revealing his inner thoughts and feelings.

Example: In Romeo and Juliet, Juliet’s speech on the balcony that begins with, "O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo?" is a soliloquy, as she is speaking aloud to herself(remember that she doesn't realize Romeo's there listening!).

Symbolism

Symbolism refers to the use of an object, figure, event, situation, or other idea in a written work to represent something else—typically a broader message or deeper meaning that differs from its literal meaning.

The things used for symbolism are called "symbols," and they’ll often appear multiple times throughout a text, sometimes changing in meaning as the plot progresses.

Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s 1925 novel The Great Gatsby, the green light that sits across from Gatsby’s mansion symbolizes Gatsby’s hopes and dreams.

Synecdoche

A synecdoche is a literary device in which part of something is used to represent the whole, or vice versa. It's similar to a metonym (see above); however, a metonym doesn't have to represent the whole—just something associated with the word used.

Example: "Help me out, I need some hands!" In this case, "hands" is being used to refer to people (the whole human, essentially).

Time to become your own Sherlock Holmes!

Personification

Language and Rhyming schemes:

A rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhymes at the end of each line of a poem or song. It is usually referred to by using letters to indicate which lines rhyme; lines designated with the same letter all rhyme with each other.

An example of the ABAB rhyming scheme, from "To Anthea, who may Command him Anything", by Robert Herrick:

Bid me to weep, and I will weep

A

While I have eyes to see

B

And having none, yet I will keep

A

A heart to weep for thee

B

Function in writing[edit]

A basic distinction is between rhyme schemes that apply to a single stanza, and those that continue their pattern throughout an entire poem (see chain rhyme). There are also more elaborate related forms, like the sestina – which requires repetition of exact words in a complex pattern. Rhyming is not a mandatory feature of poetry; a four-line stanza with non-rhyming lines could be described as using the scheme ABCD.

Notation and examples[edit]

Notation used below:

• ABAB - Four-line stanza, first and third lines rhyme at the end, second and fourth lines rhyme at the end.

• AB AB - Two two-line stanzas, with the first lines rhyming at the end and the second lines rhyming at the end.

• AB,AB - Single two-line stanza, with the two lines having both a single internal rhyme and a conventional rhyme at the end.

• aBaB - Two different possible meanings for a four-line stanza:

  • First and third lines rhyme at the end, second and fourth lines are repeated verbatim.

  • First and third lines have a feminine rhyme and the second and fourth lines have a masculine rhyme.

• A¹abA² A¹abA² - Two stanzas, where the first lines of both stanzas are exactly the same, and the last lines of both stanzas are the same. The second lines of the two stanzas are different, but rhyme at the end with the first and last lines. (In other words, all the "A" and "a" lines rhyme with each other, but not with the "b" lines.)

Notable rhyme schemes:

• Traditional rhyme: ABAB CDCD EFEF GHGH...

• Ballade: Three stanzas of ABABBCBC followed by BCBC

• Boy Named Sue: AABCC(B, or infrequently D)

• Chant royal: Five stanzas of ababccddedE followed by either ddedE or ccddedE (capital letters represent lines repeated verbatim)

• Cinquain: ABABB^{[citation needed]}

• Clerihew: AABB

• Couplet: AA, but usually occurs as AA BB CC DD ...

• Enclosed rhyme (or enclosing rhyme): ABBA

• Canopus^[1]: ABABCBC - (this example is also an acrostic^[2] poem).^[3]

• "Fire and Ice" stanza: ABAABCBCB as used in Robert Frost's poem "Fire and Ice"

• Keatsian Ode: ABABCDECDE used in Keats' Ode on Indolence, Ode on a Grecian Urn, and Ode to a Nightingale.

• Limerick: AABBA

• Monorhyme: AAAAA... an identical rhyme on every line, common in Latin and Arabic

• Onegin stanzas: aBaBccDDeFFeGG with the lowercase letters representing feminine rhymes and the uppercase representing masculine rhymes, written in iambic tetrameter

• Ottava rima: ABABABCC

• A quatrains is any four-line stanza or poem. There are 15 possible rhyme sequences for a four-line poem; common rhyme schemes for these include AAAA, AABB, ABAB, ABBA, and ABCB.^{[citation needed]}

• "The Raven" stanza: ABCBBB, or AA,B,CC,CB,B,B when accounting for internal rhyme, as used by Edgar Allan Poe in his poem "The Raven"

• Rhyme royal: ABABBCC

• The Road Not Taken stanza: ABAAB as used in Robert Frost's poem The Road Not Takenn, and in Glæde over Danmark by Poul Martin Møller).^[4]

• Rondeau: ABaAabAB (capital letters represent lines repeated verbatim)

• Rondelet: AbAabbA (capital letters represent lines repeated verbatim)

• Rubaiyat: AABA

• Scottish stanza: AAABAB, as used by Robert Burns in works such as "To a Mouse"

• Sestina: ABCDEF FAEBDC CFDABE ECBFAD DEACFB BDFECA, the seventh stanza is a tercet where line 1 has A in it but ends with D, line 2 has B in it but ends with E, line 3 has C in it but ends with F

• Simple 4-line: ABCB

• Sonnet, 14 lines:

  • 4 + 4 + 3 + 3 lines:

    • Petrarchan sonnet: ABBA ABBA CDE CDE or ABBA ABBA CDC DCD

  • 4 + 4 + 4 + 2 lines

    • Shakespearean sonnet: ABAB CDCD EFEF GG

    • Spenserian sonnet: ABAB BCBC CDCD EE

• Spenserian stanza: ABABBCBCC, where the last line is an alexandrine line

• Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening form: AABA BBCB CCDC DDDD, a modified Ruba'i stanza used by Robert Frost for the eponymous poem

• Tanaga: traditional Tagalog tanaga is AAAA

• A tristich or tercet is any three-line stanza or poem; common rhyme schemes for these are AAA (triplet) and ABA (enclosed tercet). The only other possibilities for three-line poems are AAB, ABB, and ABC. Multiple tercets can be combined into longer poems, as in the terza rima form.

• Triplet: AAA, often repeating such as: AAA BBB CCC DDD...

• Terza rima: ABA BCB CDC ..., ending on YZY Z; YZY ZZ; or YZY ZYZ

• Villanelle: A¹bA² abA¹ abA² abA¹ abA² abA¹A², where A¹ and A² are lines repeated exactly which rhyme with the "a" lines

In hip-hop music[edit]

Hip-hop music and rapping's rhyme schemes include traditional schemes such as couplets, as well as forms specific to the genre,^[5] which are broken down extensively in the books How to Rap and Book of Rhymes. Rhyme schemes used in hip-hop music include

• Couplets^[6]

• Single-liners^[7]

• Multi-liners^[8]

• Combinations of schemes^[9]

• Whole verse^[10]

Couplets are the most common type of rhyme scheme in old school rap^[11] and are still regularly used,^[6] though complex rhyme schemes have progressively become more frequent.^[12][13] Rather than relying on end rhymes, rap's rhyme schemes can have rhymes placed anywhere in the bars of music to create a structure.^[14] There can also be numerous rhythmic elements which all work together in the same scheme^[15] – this is called internal rhyme in traditional poetry,^[16] though as rap's rhymes schemes can be anywhere in the bar, they could all be internal, so the term is not always used.^[15] Rap verses can also employ 'extra rhymes', which do not structure the verse like the main rhyme schemes, but which add to the overall sound of the verse.^[17]

Number of rhyme schemes for a poem with n lines[edit]

Tale of Genji chapter symbols, including diagrams of the first 52 set partitions

The number of different possible rhyme schemes for an n-line poem is given by the Bell numbers,^[18] which for n = 1, 2, 3, ... are

1, 2, 5, 15, 52, 203, 877, 4140, 21147, 115975, .. (sequence A000110 in the OEIS).

Examples: We find one rhyme scheme for a one-line poem (A), two different rhyme schemes for a two-line poem (AA, AB), and five for a three-line poem: AAA, AAB, ABA, ABB, and ABC.

These counts, however, include rhyme schemes in which rhyme is not employed at all (ABCD). There are many fewer rhyme schemes when all lines must rhyme with at least one other line; a count of these is given by the numbers,

0, 1, 1, 4, 11, 41, 162, 715, 3425, 17722, ... (sequence A000296 in the OEIS).

For example, for a three-line poem, there is only one rhyming scheme in which every line rhymes with at least one other (AAA), while for a four-line poem, there are four such schemes (AABB, ABAB, ABBA, and AAAA).

Examples of a Rhyme Scheme in "Romeo & Juliet"

Written by Flora Richards-Gustafson

Related Articles

• 1"How to Write a Poem Using Stanza, Rhyme Scheme, Repetition & Refrain"

• 2What Are the Main Features of the Petrarchan Sonnet?

• 3Examples of Musical Devices in Poems

• 4A Couplet That Uses Alliteration

While William Shakespeare is known for his sonnets, his play “Romeo and Juliet” uses a variety of poetic forms and rhyme schemes. Throughout the play, he bases the rhyme scheme and language on the characters, the situation and emotions. For example, Romeo may speak with a specific foot and meter, but a servant may speak in a manner resembling colloquial speech.

Iambic Pentameter

Shakespeare wrote the majority of “Romeo and Juliet” in iambic pentameter. In poetry, iambic pentameter refers to the type of foot in a line of poetry and the meter, which is the number of feet in a line. An iamb foot consists of a syllable that’s not accented, followed a syllable that does have an accent. A line with iambic pentameter has 10 syllables with five iamb feet. Shakespeare wrote the opening prologue of “Romeo and Juliet” using this foot and meter: “Two households, both alike in dignity.” When he used this poetic style, the lines didn’t always rhyme.

Blank Verse and Couplets

When a poem contains blank verse, the lines use iambic pentameter, but don’t always rhyme. The characters in higher social classes, including Romeo, Juliet and Lady Capulet, speak in verse. However, Shakespeare used rhyming couplets or quatrains when a character spoke in blank verse, to signify an important action or the end of a scene. In a rhyming couplet, the words at the end of two lines rhyme in an AA style. A rhyming quatrain is when the words at the end of four lines rhyme in an AAAA or ABAB style.

Sonnet Form

A sonnet is a 14-line poem written in iambic pentameter. The first 12 lines of the poem contain three sets of rhyming quatrains and the last two lines are rhyming couplets. The rhyme scheme for a sonnet is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. The prologues to the first and second acts of “Romeo and Juliet” are sonnets. Shakespeare also used sonnets as part of the dialogue in the play, such as Act I, Scene 5, when Romeo and Juliet talk about hands, saints and pilgrims.

Speaking in Prose

In “Romeo and Juliet,” the characters sometimes speak in prose instead of verse. Like conversations, lines of prose don’t rhyme, nor do they have a metric scheme. Shakespeare had his characters speak in prose if they came from a lower social class, like servants, or if they knew one another. The nurse, for example, speaks in prose when she rants. As a more comedic character, Mercutio speaks in prose when he is with Romeo or his friends, because they are informal with each other. After Mercutio dies, the characters speak in blank verse, indicating a more serious mood.

Rhyming Schemes and structure in HIp hop music:

PROVERBS: Painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder