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A. Reading
A. Reading
You are often not told which sources are scholarly and which are not. What is more, you are not told which sources are useful and which are not. How will you determine what is what? Well...
Reading is the key to evaluation.
Making Reading Easy
Making Reading Easy
Book Features
Book Features
In addition to the front and back covers, books have a few other features that are designed to help you read them better.
Table of Contents
Helps you navigate a lengthy text
Provides page numbers for chapters and sometimes sub-headings
Allows you to see the structure and logic of the author’s thinking
The Index
Located at the end of the book
Organized alphabetically
Helps you locate where a particular concept is discussed in the book
Al-Fihrist
In Arabic books, the word “fihris(t)” (الفهرس أو الفهرست) may be used for both the table of contents and the index.
It can appear either at the beginning of the book or the end.
It may also appear at the end of the introduction, written in prose.
The Introduction
Provides you the reason for writing the book
Informs of who the audience is
Lets you know exactly what the book is about in terms of scope
Sometimes gives a chapter by chapter break down of the book's contents
Text-to-Speech
Text-to-Speech
Text-to-Speech (TTS) is software that converts digital text to audio and reads the content out loud on a device such as a computer, laptop, smart phone, etc.
It was initially designed to assist the visually impaired, but those with reading difficulties, multitaskers, those that don’t like staring at screens, etc. can also benefit from the software.
Types of TTS software:
Built-in TTS on devices: found automatically on most devices
Web-based tools: Speechify, Text to Speech, Text to Voice, etc.
TTS apps: Natural ReaderChrome tools: SpeakIt!
TTS software to download to a device: audiobookmaker.com/
How to Read a Book
How to Read a Book
On Internet Archive, you can find an electronic copy of "How to Read a Book: A Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading" by Mortimer Adler and Charles Van Doren. Or you can find it the AUC Catalog.
I suggest this book for anyone who is studying at a university and wants to improve their reading skills.
Reading is fundamental to research. Imagine a world in which knowledge was not recorded or passed down. Everyone in every generation would need to discover on their own what people before them discovered.
Recording knowledge in written form allows you to benefit from the discoveries of predecessors without re-creating the wheel.
Knowing how to read is just as essential as knowing the contents of a written work. Not only do you learn from other people's research but you can also make new discoveries of your own through proper reading.
Therefore, Dr. Mortimer Adler put forth a system of reading that helps people read for information more efficiently.
Dr. Adler's Reading Typologies
Dr. Adler's Reading Typologies
Summary
Summary
Elementary: could be a phonetical reading of letters and understanding the conventional meanings of words
Inspectional: composed of two parts: 1) a systematic skimming of the book jacket, table of contents, etc. and 2) a superficial reading of parts of the book.
Analytical: a thorough reading of the work in which you identify the subject matter and problem, understand key terms, take notes, and summarize.
Syntopical: a comparative reading with other works on the topic. Find important passages, question the authors, compare with other works, and analyze a discussion.
Lateral Reading
Lateral Reading
It is always a good idea read multiple sources on one topic, especially if you find it on the web. Sometimes information isn't always what it seems. You should get into the habit of implementing the following four strategies for fact-checking your sources:
Check for previous work: Look around to see if someone else has already fact-checked the claim or provided a synthesis of research.
Go upstream to the source: Go “upstream” to the source of the claim. Most web content is not original. Get to the original source to understand the trustworthiness of the information.
Read laterally: Read laterally. Once you get to the source of a claim, read what other people say about the source (publication, author, etc.). The truth is in the network.
Circle back: If you get lost, or hit dead ends, or find yourself going down an increasingly confusing rabbit hole, back up and start over knowing what you know now. You’re likely to take a more informed path with different search terms and better decisions.
This strategy is taken from the following book. It's brief and easy to read. So if you need to learn more please refer to it:
Caulfield, M. (2017). Web Literacy for Student Fact-Checkers. Textbooks. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=textbooks.
B. Note Taking
B. Note Taking
As you read, it is important to take notes. Reading without taking notes is like not reading at all and taking notes while reading could mean that you will not have to read again what you already read.
Good note taking requires an efficient system. There are many note taking systems and the best one is the one that works for you, but it should embody the three following characteristics:
Notes should be stored in one place
Notes should be easily accessible and retrievable
Notes should be properly sourced, including the citation information, page number, etc.
I recommend learning about the Zettlekasten system of taking notes. It was founded by a German sociologist named Niklas Luhmann, a very prolific writer who authored over 70 books and close to 400 articles in his lifetime. When asked how he became so productive he credited his Zettlekasten, which was his box of notes.
While his system can be thought of as a personal Wikipedia, Luhmann saw it as a site for thinking. Whenever he read he took notes and stored it in his note taking system. Because of this system, research topics were never difficult to find, he never had to re-read sources, and, most importantly, research for him was fun and easy!
For a deeper understanding on how the Zettlekasten can help you academically, read the book How to Take Smart Notes by Sonke Ahrens.
How to Take Smart Notes (Book Summary)
How to Take Smart Notes (Book Summary)
A summary of the most comprehensive book on the topic of the Zettlekasten Method.
Sonke Ahrens (author)
Sonke Ahrens (author)
The author of How to Take Smart Notes discusses education, research, and note taking.
C. Evaluation
C. Evaluation
Bias
Bias
Before we discuss evaluating popular sources we must understand something about bias. Bias in research is defined as: Allowing personal beliefs to influence research and other academic work.
It is a natural human disposition and nearly anything that is processed by a human mind reflects some sort of bias. However, in the world of research we attempt to diminish bias by exposing ourselves to as many different perspectives as possible.
How does bias manifest in research? The following are the main ways that bias affects research:
Research funding bias: funders influence which research projects to fund
Experimenter bias: experimenters prefer certain results
Publication bias: publishers prefer particular kinds of work
Access bias: language, full text, price, etc.
Reliability
Reliability
As you can imagine, bias affects the reliability of a source. However, sometimes you are looking for bias. Or in other words, you are searching for differing perspectives and people's honest opinions. For instance...
When you are looking at survey results, you are looking at a collection of opinions on a topic. Opinions are biased by nature.
If you are watching an interview, reading a memoir, or reading a news editorial, these are all individual opinions about a topic or event, even if they are experts.
Reliable Non-Scholarly Sources
Reliable Non-Scholarly Sources
You will find that what you think is reliable information depends on your topic. For instance...
Videos:
Old video advertisements from the 1950’s about cigarettes can tell you a lot about public knowledge of smoking in those times.
Company Reports:
Companies usually publish yearly reports about the state of their company. Since this information would otherwise be private, this is some of the most reliable information on a company.
NGO's & Non-Profits:
Non-governmental organizations and other non-profits often have up-to-date and specialized knowledge of a particular topic. They attempt to limit their bias by not affiliating themselves with governments or corporations.
https://www.who.int/countries/egy/en/
Government Websites:
They tend to have an overview of the country as a whole. Official information such as laws, documents, public officials, etc. tend to be most accurate and up-to-date on government websites. Don't let your bias against a particular government taint your perception of the accurate information they might provide.
http://www.egypt.gov.eg/english/home.aspx
News Sources:
An article on a newspaper website or blog might include the date and location of a recent event.
Fake News
Fake News
Layers of Information
Layers of Information
Primary/Original Research
Do not confuse this with Primary Sources
Studies conducted and published by researchers
Theoretical and specialized information
2) Reviews of Research
Summaries and interpretations of original research
Appears in news articles, reference sources, textbooks, and other formal channels
3) Conclusions and Beliefs about Research
Information in the public sphere
Shared through informal channels
Subject to speculation and distortions
How to Choose Your News
How to Choose Your News
How False News Spreads
How False News Spreads
C.R.A.A.P.
C.R.A.A.P.
To address the plethora of misinformation on the web librarians have developed a test that you can perform on any source you come across on the internet. It's called the C.R.A.A.P. test:
Currency
Is it recently published?
Is the information outdated? When was it last updated?
Are the links on the website working or are they dead links?
Is it a topic that needs the most recent information? (Such as health, technology, political events, etc.)
Relevance
Does the information relate to your topic or answer your question?
Is the topic covered with sufficient depth and breadth? Is the information comprehensive enough for your needs? Could you find the same information or better in another source?
What gives you confidence in the information? Would you be comfortable citing this source in an academic paper?
Authority
Who is the author? Who is the publisher?
Is the author/publisher clearly identified? Is contact information easy to find?
What are the author’s credentials? Is the author knowledgeable in his/her field (based on employment, publications, sponsorship by reputable organizations)?
Is the author an individual person or an organization?
What is their reputation? (Do some “Googling” if you’re unsure!)
Accuracy
Is the information detailed or very general? Can it be verified in other sources?
What types of sources are cited? Can you find those sources?
Is the language serious or casual? Are there spelling, grammar, or typographical errors?
Purpose / Point-of-View
Is the purpose or intent of the page clear? Is it to inform, teach, sell, entertain or persuade? Do you notice any possible biases?
Is advertising content vs. informational content easily distinguishable?
Does the point of view appear objective or impartial? Does the language or tone seem unbiased and free from emotion?
Does the sponsoring organization have a political, philosophical, or ideological agenda?
P.R.O.V.E.N.
P.R.O.V.E.N.
Another method librarians suggest that you evaluate sources on the web is called P.R.O.V.E.N., which contains many of the same observations as the C.R.A.A.P. method.
Purpose: How and why the source was created.
How and why did the authors publish this information? Is it intended to educate, inform, persuade,
sell, or entertain? Do the authors, publishers, or sponsors state this purpose, or try to disguise it?
Why was this information published in this particular type of source (book, article, website, blog, etc.)?
Who is the intended audience? Is the source designed for the general public, students, or experts?
Relevance: The value of the source for your needs.
Is the type of source appropriate for how you plan to use it, and for your assignment’s requirements?
How useful is the information in this source, compared to other sources? Does it answer your question
or support your argument? Does it add something new and important to your knowledge of the topic?
How detailed is the information? Is it too general or too specific? Is it too basic or too advanced?
Objectivity: The reasonableness and completeness of the information.
Do the authors present the information thoroughly and professionally? Do they critique other
perspectives respectfully? Do they use strong, emotional, manipulative, or offensive language?
Do the authors, publishers, or sponsors have a particular political, ideological, cultural, or religious
point of view? Do they acknowledge this point of view, or try to disguise it?
Is the information fact or opinion? Is it biased? Does the source present multiple points of view on the
topic? Does it leave out, or make fun of, important facts or alternative perspectives?
Verifiability: The accuracy and truthfulness of the information.
Do the authors support the information they present with strong factual evidence? Do they cite or
provide links to other sources? Do those sources pass the P.R.O.V.E.N. test?
What do experts say about the topic? Can you verify the information in other credible sources?
Does the source contradict itself, include false statements, or misrepresent other sources?
Are there errors in spelling, punctuation, or grammar?
Expertise: The authority of the creators of the source.
What makes the authors, publishers, or sponsors of the source authorities on the topic? Do they have
related education, personal or professional experience, or other expertise? Are they affiliated with an
educational institution or respected organization? Is their expertise acknowledged by other authorities
on the topic? Do they provide an important alternative perspective? Do other sources cite this source?
Has the source been reviewed in some way, such as by an editor or through peer review?
Does the source provide contact information for the authors, publishers, and/or sponsors?
Newness: The age of the information.
Is your topic in an area that requires current information (such as science, technology, or current
events), or could information found in older sources still be useful and valid?
When was the information presented in the source first published or posted? Are the references or
links to other sources up to date?
Are newer sources available that would add important information to your understanding of the topic?
Source Checker is a game designed to get you thinking about the sources that are used in media stories and other sources of information.
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