Paul is a Geomorphologist.
1) What is a (a) Geomorphologist and (b) when/ how did you become interested in this unique scientific career?
(a) A geomorphologist is interested in landscape features, such as mountains, glaciers, and rivers; and the forces and processes that form, shape, and destroy them. At Mount Rainier National park, I am a fluvial geomorphologist―or river specialist.
I am fortunate that the superintendent of the park considers glaciers “frozen rivers”. So I also study glaciers, and since many of the park’s rivers originate from glaciers, they strongly influence river behavior.
(b) Ever since I came to the Pacific Northwest late in the 1970s to attend the University of Washington in Geophysics, I had been like a moth flying around the flame of geomorphology. I have worked as a glaciologist gauging glaciers and volcanic hazards; I have done oil exploration in frontier Alaskan basins; and I have assessed the impacts of forestry and clearcutting on tribal salmon runs. At Mount Rainier, I get to draw on the experience of all of those jobs.
2) What (a) challenges / (b) opportunities does Mount Rainier National Park offer you.
(a) Leading experts think Mount Rainier is showing some of the most direct, catastrophic effects of climate change in the United States, with floods, debris flows, and loss of old growth forests. And while, this makes it a fascinating place to work; it also makes protecting roads and maintaining visitor access in the park a bear.
Another emerging challenge is the budget cut backs that the park is experiencing. For example, as of next year, I will have no funding to continue my climate change and geologic hazard related studies.
(b) At Mount Rainier, I work with pristine rivers starting from their glacier source. And I completely believe in the park service mission of protecting resources, while maintaining visitor enjoyment. Part of the latter, is trying to maintain access to the park.
Fortunately, the park has embraced progressive and resource-friendly measures to protect roads. So while the challenges that nature presents are increasing, the park is supportive of adapting, and responding efficiently, with great innovation.
3) Most people think that geological processes unfold over generations, millenniums and longer. Describe what you see in your every day work at Mount Rainier?
I sometimes joke that geomorphology, at Mount Rainier, is geology on steroids. That is, Mount Rainier is such a dynamic environment, that things often happen on a human time scale, not just the traditional geologic timescale.
Of course, geologic processes have been building, shaping, and eroding what is considered, by geologists as the ‘modern’ Rainier, for 500,000 years. So some things go on inexorably, but are punctuated by large, but infrequent events, like volcanic eruptions. But today, with climate change, our “everyday” geology has accelerated, and is sometimes a bit too exciting.
4) You've used metaphors like (a) "River's Run Wild" and (b) "War of the Woods" in trying to explain the interplay between the glaciated rivers of Mount Rainier and the Old Growth Forest Why do you use these metaphors to describe natural processes?
Part of my job is to communicate with other the research institutions and public agencies―and most importantly, to the public. Early on, I had to give a campfire talk at the park’s large Cougar camp ground. Recognizing the dominant demographic, 12 year old boys, I had to give the topics some zing.
(a) But in reality, the rivers really are going wild. They are filling with sediment at an unprecedented rate (which means they can hold less water, are more prone to flooding). In some places next to roads, the bed of the river has risen 38 feet. There are sections of the park, where up to 6 miles of river is perched up to 20 feet above the surrounding floodplain (often where the roads are), in apparent defiance of gravity. In fact, only Rainier’s magnificent ancient forests are the only barriers containing these elevated rivers.
At the same time, large storms are increasing in number, and the largest flood of record was in 2006. In fact, what used to be considered a 100 year flood in 1970, is now occurring on average every 14 years, on the Nisqually river. To add insult to injury, there have been at least a dozen destructive debris flows that have coursed down park rivers. Debris flows are the most destructive type of landslide.
(b) What we call the War of the Woods, is a longstanding struggle between the old growth forests trying to take over the river valley bottoms, and the river trying to fend it off. As I mentioned earlier, there are many areas in the park next to roads, where the river bottom is well above the surrounding forest. The only thing preventing wholesale, catastrophic sweeping of the large rivers across the entire valley bottom (and the roads) is the presence of large trees at the rivers’ edge.
As the rivers fill up with sediment more quickly, and there are larger and more frequent floods, the balance is tipping in the river’s favor. There are parts of the park where large swathes of forest that took centuries to grow have been destroyed in scant decades. The unshackled river has recently moved over 500 feet laterally, and occupied 3 distinct river channels. All that remains of the old growth forests in these areas, are legacy ghost forests of dead snags.
5) How long has the war been happening and how has climate change impacted the recent history of the contest so to speak?
This epic battle has been playing out for thousands of years, ever since the large alpine glaciers have receded, and the valley started to reforest. It has only been in the last couple of decades that the rivers have mounted an insurgency that shows no sign of abating.
6) Was the historic storm of Nov. 2006 a milestone or turning point in the "War of the Woods."
The November 2006 flooding was a clear clarion call to the park that its world is changing. 18 inches of rain deluged in 18 hours; there were 10 debris flows, some in areas that had not historically had them before; and most rivers and streams experienced record flooding. Many trails and every major park road experienced significant damage, and the park was closed for 6 months. After 10s of millions of dollars of repairs, there are still problem areas.
7) Talk about the Carbon River specifically. (a) Why did you choose the Carbon Glacier and river valley to research and (b) why should we spend the public's money studying such a remote area?
(a) Riparian forests in valley bottoms are subject to hysteresis—taking centuries to develop in river valley bottoms, but vulnerable to destruction in decades or less. As catastrophic river shifting in elevated rivers is almost entirely controlled by the stream-side forests, loss of the old growth riparian trees creates a threshold between relative river stability and frequent river movement.
Since 2003 we have noticed accelerated loss of old-growth forests in the White river (from increased river aggradation and associated floodplain flooding); yet, in general, the riparian forests remain intact. Conversely, there has been an almost complete loss of stream side forests in parts of Tahoma creek (due to numerous debris flows), and in the last 10 years the river has bounced among 3 separate channels, and migrated over 500 feet.
The Carbon river is an intermediate case, with accelerating forest loss. It is unclear if the riparian vegetation will be able to contain the Carbon river in the near-term. Loss of the stream side forest will result in old growth forest and fish habitats destruction, and unfettered channel movement across the wide valley bottom. Loss of historic streamside roads, buildings and trails will be inevitable, and possibly unmitigatable.
(b) Catastrophic river channel shifts, or avulsions, are a major threat to forest and river habitats of endangered land birds (spotted owls, and marbled murrelets) and fish (salmon and bulltrout). Additionally, sudden floodplain flooding is an increasing source of mortality for old growth trees, and threatens most park roads, and many buildings, most of which are historic. There is evidence that climate change is exacerbating these effects. Despite this, almost nothing is known about how riparian forests control river avulsions.
Specifically, the climate change-driven risks to: (1) the visiting public and park workers; (2) natural resources (including endangered and threatened species, and primeval, sentinel old growth trees); and (3) park infrastructure (roads and buildings, many of which is historic) in the Carbon river watershed are unknown, and this information is gravely needed for rational park management.
8) What is you research team of "River Rats," looking for in along the Carbon River and it's old growth forest?
This summer, we will have a “rat pack” of 4 student employees and interns scurrying all over the Carbon river, from the lower glacier (where the debris flows originate) to the park entrance.
Overall, we are trying to figure out if the loss of the ancient forests is accelerating, and what this means for sudden river channel shifting (avulsions), erosion, debris flows, flooding, and the fate of the remaining road and trail.
Right now the 1st team is doing intensive field work discovering the locations and history of catastrophic river avulsions, and assisting me in investigating the triggers to debris flows coursing off the glacier. Later in the year, the 2nd team will be surveying the river to see if aggradation is accelerating, and they will identify specific risks to the trail, road, campground, and buildings.
9) How has your research help inform policy decisions made at Mount Rainier National Park and how might this new research do the same for government entities like WSDOT or Pierce County ?
The Management Team at the park, received the message from the devastating 2006 flood, and has taken it to heart. They have embraced the idea of having the geomorphology program figure out what the new and increasing threats to park roads, tails, and buildings, and responding with a smart, flexible flood protection tactics.
At the Carbon, these include 4 massive engineered log jams (visible from the park entrance gate and immediately up river). These structures are saving the buildings at the entrance and Maintenance area, and the surviving road. Instead of using the traditional rock, they employ large pieces of wood, and not only provide maximal flood protection, but are self-mitigating and fish-friendly. And they are built to survive the full force of a flooding Carbon river―and like ice bergs, most of the structure is not visible, with logs buried over 15 feet below the river bottom.
Further up river, the trail is currently inaccessible to heavy construction equipment, and the park has adapted ‘guerilla’ tactics. These are smaller, more frequently applied flood protection responses, based on the best current knowledge of the specific hazards. They frequently employ native materials (wood, and river rock) and sometimes experimental. If the experiment works, the technique is used again, if not, a new one is found. The park remains committed to maintaining access to Ipsut camp ground.
On the Nisqually and White rivers particularly, Pierce County and downstream towns are legitimately concerned with the increasing amount of sediment leaving the park, and clogging the downstream rivers, increasing flooding risks. Pierce County is working closely with the USGS and the park to understand these mounting risks.
The park is working with WSDOT in maintaining SR410 in the White river. As an agency, WSDOT has been progressive in understanding climate change associated risks, and employing enlightened flood protection structures. We are hopeful this is will inform the future, mutual efforts for White river flood protection.