Wayne Hunt

Is Wave Energy a viable component of Ireland's Renewable Energy Strategy

Abstract

Ireland along with the rest of the world is reliant on fossil fuels. Ireland at the moment imports 92% of its primary energy. Ireland's Government has set a target that by 2020, that 40% of it energy will be supplied from renewable sources. Wave energy offers a large resource to be tapped, Europe’s accessible wave power resource is calculated to be of the order of 320,000MW with the highest resource available near the West of Ireland.

The world has reached Peak Oil and due to its over reliance on Fossil Fuels has to quickly find an alternative viable energy source.

A Wave Energy strategy is perfect for Ireland due to its Location, Clean Energy, Security of Supply and Less of a reliance on Fossil Fuels but this will only be done with the help of Government willingness and policy to drive change. There is great potential for jobs in the sector through research, installation and maintenance.

The WestWave project is an example of collaboration at work between private companies and part funding from government bodies. Although like most project there are some obstacles to be overcome.

Introduction

"Ireland is unique in Europe in that 92% of primary energy is imported. This high dependence on imported energy has led the Government to set a target of supplying 40% of its electricity consumption from renewable sources by 2020 . The abundant resources available in ocean energy, both wave and marine tidal current energy, ensure that it will have an important role to play in meeting longer term energy targets in Ireland.[14]"

As always, the world economy is the key driver of energy consumption. Ireland is particularly concerned with energy consumption and prices and supply chain issues as for example in 2003 it imported 89% of its energy needs.[1]

According to the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland Annual report of 2010 , 95% of energy used in Ireland came from fossil fuels in 2009. With demand of energy always raising due to the ever growing population and the eventual depletion of fossil fuels. In Fact we can see in figure 1 in 2010 global energy consumbtion increased by 5.6%, which is the strongest growth since 1973. [2]

We need to realize that our long term energy supply cannot be based on oil reserves and gas fields. There is now an increasing demand and need for Ireland along with the rest of the world to now seriously start looking and implementing a renewable energy strategy, yes we know this will not happen overnight it will be a long term project. This can be a combination of renewable energy generation methods working in tandem with each method i.e. Solar, Wind, Ocean, Hydro etc... There has been increasing use of renewable energy in recent years with a positive trend in growth of 14% in 2009 and between 2005 and 2009 a growth of 15% each year.[2]

"Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat—which are renewable (naturally replenished).

Some Key aspects of Renewable Energy:

  • It exists perpetually and abundant in Nature

  • Ready to be harnessed

  • Clean Alternative to fossil fuels"[13]

"In 2009, renewable energy sources met approximately 4.9% of Ireland’s total energy requirement. This figure breaks down as follows:

•4.2% of heat demand

•14.1% of electricity demand

•1.8% of transport demand

4.9% renewable sourced energy led to carbon dioxide savings of 3 million tonnes."[2]

[2] World Consumption of energy between 1985-2010 (figure 1)

According to the Ocean Energy roadmap we have a potential of gaining from ocean energy a cumulative total by 2050 of 356 Mtoe.[7]

Ocean Energy.

"The development of wave and tidal resources as a source of energy is the subject of growing international investigation. Ireland’s offshore renewable energy resources have significant development potential and are considered as being among the best in the world, with the practicable wave energy resource estimated at more than 6000MW.

At present there is no well-established wave energy industry anywhere in the world. Ireland has the potential to become a world-leading developer and manufacturer of the technologies that will enable the harnessing of ocean energy resources. To achieve this, the Marine Institute is working with Sustainable Energy Authority Ireland to implement a National Strategy for Ocean Energy. The main objectives are the creation of a centre of excellence in OE technology and the stimulation of a world-class industry cluster and the connection of 500MW of ocean energy by 2020."[8]

"The World Energy Council has estimated the worldwide wave power resource to be 2 TW, equivalent to an annual available energy resource of 17 500 TWh. Therefore for some countries - wave energy offeres a very large potential resource to be tapped."[4]

Ireland is ideally located to benefit from the waves generated in the Atlantic Ocean. Globally, the Northern Temperate Zone has the best sites for capturing wave power. Ireland possesses one of the richest wave energy climates in the world and lies close to a large consumer market in N.W. Europe. Wave Energy refers to the energy contained in the ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to generate electricity. The wave power is determined by wave height, wave speed, wave length, and water density.[10]

Europe’s accessible wave power resource is calculated to be of the order of 320,000MW with the highest resource available near the West of Ireland. [1]

Increasing concerns about the environmental, economic, and strategic costs of relying on fossil fuels, coupled with the widespread success of wind and solar power, are giving new life to hopes of capturing energy from the oceans. Oceanic bodies-which collectively cover a little more than 70% of the planet's surface-may be a potentially significant, currently untapped reservoir of energy.

Generating a Wave

Winds generated by the differential heating of the earth, travel over vast volumes of ocean water transferring energy to the water to produce waves. The size of the wave depends on the strength, duration and the unobstructed distance over which the wind blows. Offshore waves commonly have larger amplitude than nearshore or onshore waves due to greater water depth (no friction from the sea bed).[20] Waves generated by wind are called wind waves. When the waves propagate outside their region of generation, they are called swells. Water is deep, swells can travel very large distances, for instance across oceans, almost without loss of energy.[25]

Wave Structure [4]

Why a Wave Energy Strategy suits Ireland.

    • Clean Energy

Unlike fossil fuels, renewable energy resources are 'clean' in that they will not damage the environment. While fossil fuels release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, renewable energy resources do not damage the environment in this way and so they can be used as part of a strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emmissions.

Climate Change is the single biggest environmental challenge we face in this century. It is clear that if Ireland is to make a successful transition to a climate resilient society we need to implement radical changes across all economic sectors particularly energy, transport, and agriculture, and in our own lives.[5] What has Ireland done to for see this inevitable change? Working with the EPA there has a goal being put in place that by 2020 that Ireland will achieve major reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and will be prepared for the unavoidable impact of climate change.

The Ultimate Rollarcoaster Ride [6]

See the youtube video from the post carbon institute to give a quick 300 year history of fossil fuels, what obstacles must be faced in moving from fossil fuels to renewable energy.

Climate change is now generally used to refer to changes in our climate due to the build up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The burning of fossil fuels have long being known to be cause in the rise of greenhouse gases.

Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions (1990–2009) and Ireland’s Kyoto Limit [5] (figure 2)

In figure 2 we can see that Ireland's Greenhouse emmisions have decreased in the last few years but this has been generally due to the economic downturn we will have to continue to work hard to get below the Kyoto Limit. If the Irish economy picks up again we can expect higher emissions from fossil fuels unless we move quicker to renewable energy sources.

Wave energy can play a big part in reducing our carbon emissions, see figure 3 for the expected saving of CO2 emissions from using ocean energy. The Government Ocean Energy Strategy can see a CO2 reduction benefits accruing to the

economy valued at €2m and €10m by 2020 and 2025 respectively.[15]

(Figure 3)

The potential for conflict with other users of sea space must be addressed early in the siting of offshore wave power plants. Potential conflicts may exist with marine protected areas, shipping, fishing, scientific research areas, military warning area, telecommunication cable routes and dredge spoil disposal sites. Most of these may be avoided with appropriate research during site selection and early dialogue with groups that might be affected.

There is little potential for chemical pollution although the devices will have to use some lubrications, they should be adequatley sealed. Likewise noise generation should be low, even lower then the actual waves crashing.

    • Location

    • Of course for a country to rely on Ocean energy as part of it future energy grid it fairly important that the country has not only a coastline but one that is exposed to the harsh weather that Ireland's west coast has. Ask any surfer and they will tell you how Ireland has some of the best waves in the world. These waves are also perfect to harness and use as part of renewable strategy.

    • According to the The WorldWaves global offshore database, [9] the west coast of Ireland is one of the best places for ocean resouces near to coast in terms of kW/m (see figure 4/Figure 5)

    • The Marine Institute and SEAI commissioned ESBI to complete an atlas of the wave energy resource in Irish waters.[8] Some of the data it found were:

    • Ireland has an excellent wave energy resource due to its favourable climate and location

      • • The West coast of Ireland has the best wave energy resource in Europe with annual power levels of 76 kW/m.

      • • Theoretical wave resource of 525 TWh exists in Irish waters.

      • • To put this in context, in 2006 the electricity requirement for Ireland was 27.8 TWh per year.

      • • The accessible resource was estimated as 21 TWh (estimating cable length to deliver power ashore from the generators)

      • • In terms of power output, the accessible Irish wave power resource is equivalent to 2.4GW

    • Figure 4 Global annual mean wave power estimates in kW/m [9]

    • Figure 5 [8]

    • Less of a reliance on "Fossil Fuels"

"World total annual consumption of all forms of primary energy increased more than ten fold during the twentieth century, and in the year 2002 reached an estimated 451 Ej (exajoules), or some 10 800 Mtoe. Fossil fuels provided three quarters of the total. The world population in 2002 was some 6.2 billion, so the annual average energy consuption per person was about 74 Gj (gigajoules), Equivalent to nearly 6 litres of oil per day for every man, woman and child. "[4]

It's not hard too work out from figure 6 below to see we have a long way to go before we start to utilise fully renewable energies as one of our main energy providers. Oil by far is still the main consumption of energy followed by Natural gas, they are still on the increase.

Figure 6 Total final energy consumption in Ireland by fuel [20]

"How long will the world's fossil fuel reserve last? At current consuption rates, proven world coal reserves should last for about 200 years, oil for approximately 40 years and natural gas for around 60 years. However, world production of liquid fuels, including non-conventional as well as conventional source, seem likely to reach a peak between 2005 and 2015. Peak production of natual gas is likely around 2030. From then on, although large quantities of oil and gas will remain, the overall resource will be in decline."[4]

According to Hubberts Peak Theory once the entire planet oil production reaches its peak, the the of oil production would enter a terminal decline. In the You tube video below he explains his theory and how OPEC might flatten the global production curve but this would only delay the peak for perhaps ten years.[12]

1976 video clip of M King Hubbert speaking about world oil depletion and explaining the concept of peak oil.

"Some observers opine that peak oil should be viewed as a positive event. Many such critics reason that if the price of oil rises high enough, the use of alternative clean fuels could help control pollution from fossil fuel use, and mitigate global warming"[12].

As said before Wave energy is everlasting and abundant in nature, in terms of future proofing and planning for future generations energy needs.

    • Viability

Ocean energy is still at an early stage and so the devices used to harness the waves are often still in prototype phase. This has meant that at the moment there is a high cost implication of this renewable energy strategy compared to other renewable methods, such as wind or solar which has been in use for a while now. Like all other technologies the start phase of any project can be quite costly but as it advances and more units are built, their price per unit comes down due to economics of scale. Also with each technological advances cheaper and easier ways of making something are found. Wave energy technology also has the disadvantage that during construction there is the added cost due to operating at sea, where with a normal wind turbine once a suitable location is found can be installed a lot easier.

    • Security of supply

Ireland is very reliant on fossil fuels and generally at the moment the supply of oil depends on how many barrels of oil the OPEC countries want to release into the market. Of course then we have the eventual depletion of fossil fuels, but if we are able to create or own viable energy source which we can depend on all year round, it will be invaluable. When we add our future wave energy devices into the energy grid we should have a smooth constant supply. We are also in a bit of luck when we see that wave energy availability is at its highest during bad winter weather, obviously because we should have stronger winds and higher waves as shown in figure 6 below. It is estimated that if 0.2% of the ocean’s untapped energy could be harnessed, it could provide power sufficient for the entire world [18], imagine what we could do then.

Figure 7: Wave Energy Supply vs Demand [4]

In 2007 the countries of the European Union consumed 2,926 TWh of electricity. Ocean energy generation has a potential to reach 3.6 GW of installed capacity by 2020 and close to 188 GW by 2050. This represents over 9 TWh/ year by 2020 and over 645 TWh/year by 2050, amounting to 0.3% and 15% of the projected EU-27 electricity demand by 2020 and 2050 respectively. [23]

    • Government willingness and Policy

For a renewable strategy to be implemented efficiently and for it to take up within Ireland it is important that it receives full government support on the matter. Collaboration is needed between the public and private sector as obviously a lot of initial investment is needed and a return on investment might not be seen for a long time."The main purpose of renewable energy policies is to increase the production of renewable energy. Previous research has shown that strict environmental policies spur more innovation. This research finds that strict policies have long lasting positive effect that increases not only innovation, but actual production as well. Research also found that quantity-based regulatory policies were cost effective in reducing carbon emissions. Policies that use quotas to increase renewables are much less costly than those that hand out financial subsidies. Thus, more quantity-based approaches would be better in terms of cost efficiency."[19]

Thankfully Ireland has realised the need for a strategy to be put in place and has created quite an extensive report and objectives set out in the "Ocean Energy Strategy". As part of its proposals it hopes to increase learning and development in the sector thus advancing the speed that ocean energy technologies are deployed in Ireland. At the moment Ireland has third level research expertise in this area in place like UL and UCC.

The report set out a four phase strategy which would hopefully capitalise on Ireland Ocean Energy resource. After each phase there would be a review of each phase was moving forward.

Figure 8: Four Phase Ocean Energy Strategy[15]

As can be seen, initially phase 1 will be involved with research and development progressing further through each stage until hopefully finally we will have a product in place in the market which is creating sufficient amounts of power as a price that is right for all needs.

"Phase 1 (2005 to 2007) focuses on development by supporting product R&D and research facilities.

The objective of this phase is to develop and test large scale prototype concepts and develop technical leadership in this area. The estimated grant support cost for Phase 1 is €4.9m. Following areview of Phase 1, a decision to proceed to Phase 2 will be made.

Phase 2 (2008 to 2010) would support the development of pre-commercial grid connected devices with the objective of demonstrating the potential for a cost effective fully functional wave energy converter operating in the Irish electricity market. Here an option to support either a national developer or an external commercial developer is included. Grant support for product development and a test connection along with electricity price support of 15c/kWh could be offered. The maximum cost for Phase 2 is €10.5m. Following a review of Phase 2, a decision to proceed to Phase 3 will be made.

Phase 3 (2011 – 2015) could provide support for a 10MW large -scale array of devices to be connected to the grid. Some level of grant support for product development and grid connection, and possibly electricity price support, would likely be required. Following a review of Phase 3, a decision to proceed to Phase 4 will be made. The WestWaveproject will also fulfil Phase 3 of the Irish Government Ocean Energy Strategy.[16]

Phase 4 (2016 onwards), large scale market deployment for ocean energy. It is likely that some level of industry development support will be necessary at this phase; particularly if an export focused industry in ocean energy device manufacture is to be developed"[15]

Examples of the benefit of Government policy in Ocean Energy.

An example of this is the "Westwave Project" which is a "collaborative approach from ESB International to accelerate the development of the ocean energy sector in Ireland through the development of a pre-commercial wave farm array off the west coast in line with Irish Government Ocean Energy Strategy and the EU Ocean Energy Association’s Roadmap. It is a ‘public good’ project which seeks to attract support from the EU under NER300 as well as support from relevant state agencies and departments in Ireland along with leading Irish and international wave energy technology developers. ESBI believes this approach will deliver the best outcome for Ireland and the EU leading to the development of commercial wave farm projects by 2020 and beyond.

The project is led by ESB International Limited who will work with a number of wave energy technology partners in order to develop the project. The technology partners on the WestWave project are Aquamarine Power Limited, Pelamis Wave Power Limited, Ocean Energy Limited and Wavebob Limited.

The principle purpose of this project is to demonstrate that an initial wave energy project can be designed, consented, developed and operated in Ireland using innovative wave energy conversion technologies. Aside from the confidence in technology, construction and operation and maintenance, the project will also aim to lay foundations and stimulate the market in terms of consenting processes, grid access and local infrastructure required for Ireland to realise its ambitions in the Ocean Energy sector and lead to the development of commercial ocean energy projects in Ireland and the EU towards 2020. The WestWave project will also fulfill Phase 3 of the Irish Government Ocean Energy Strategy. " [16]

    • Job Creation

      • With the current job climate in a flux and it has become a topic which is on the tip of everyones tongue, a source of job creation is of high interest. In the 2004 Bacon report [17] it is laid out that based on UK estimates, Ireland could hope to create and keep 1125 jobs by 2020 though Construction, Installation, Operation and Maintenance of wave Energy devices.

            • Figure 9: Bacon Job Creation Estimates

If Ireland can grow into a leading player in the ocean energy market by developing an expertise in this sector it can also hopefully be able to create jobs through the export market. If viable wave energy devices and developed and manufactured in Ireland we would then be able to export them internationally leading to a possibility of creating up to 70000 jobs.[7]

Wave Energy at work in the real world

"Wave energy devices use various conversion technologies to generate electricity. These conversion technologies make use of mechanical motion or fluid pressure to generate electricity and there are several techniques.

The location of the wave energy devices can be onshore, nearshore or offshore. The type of device used depends on the location. The three most common wave device types are:

Overtopping devices: The wave usually flows over a sloped barrier to fill an artificial basin. The detained water is then piped through a water turbine to produce electricity.

Oscillating water column: One side of the device is in open air, the other side is in water. When the water rises in the column the air is displaced. An air turbine is placed at the open end of the column to generate electricity from the air flow.

Point absorbers: This technology generally involves the use of abuoy. The movement of the buoy can be converted into mechanical or hydraulic power.

There are considerable differences between the engineering challenges of onshore, nearshore and offshore wave devices.

Offshore devices will have higher transmission costs than nearshore or onshore devices. However offshore devices should be more cost effective since the power increases with the square of the amplitude of the wave"[20]

    • Examples of wave technology in the real world

We are fortunate that there are now numerous examples of wave energy systems at work in Ireland, as previously discuscussed the technology partners on the WestWave project are Aquamarine Power Limited, Pelamis Wave Power Limited, Ocean Energy Limited and Wavebob Limited amongst others. The WestWaveproject will also fulfil Phase 3 of the Irish Government Ocean Energy Strategy.

    • How does this technology work?

      • Aquamarine Power Limited

      • "Aquamarine Power's Oyster wave power technology captures energy in nearshore waves and converts it into clean sustainable electricity. Essentially Oyster is a wave-powered pump which pushes high pressure water to drive an onshore hydro-electric turbine. The Oyster wave power device is a buoyant, hinged flap which is attached to the seabed at depths of between 10 and 15 metres, around half a kilometre from the shore. This location is often referred to as the nearshore.

        • Oyster's hinged flap, which is almost entirely underwater, pitches backwards and forwards in the nearshore waves. The movement of the flap drives two hydraulic pistons which push high pressure water onshore via a subsea pipeline to drive a conventional hydro-electric turbine.

        • In the future, subsea pipelines will connect multiple Oyster wave energy devices to a single onshore plant. Ultimately Oyster will be installed in wave farms of several hundred connected devices generating hundreds of megawatts of electricity.

        • By locating Oyster in the nearshore, we are able to capture a high proportion of the energy available in the ocean whilst avoiding the severe storms which occur further out to sea."[22]

      • Pelamis Wave Power Limited

      • The Pelamis absorbs the energy of ocean waves and converts it into electricity. The machine floats semi-submerged on the surface of the water and is made up of a number of cylindrical sections joined together by hinged joints. As waves pass down the length of the machine these sections flex relative to one another. The motion at each hinged joint is resisted by hydraulic cylinders which pump fluid into high pressure accumulators allowing electrical generation to be smooth and continuous. Control of the resistance applied by the hydraulic cylinders allows generation to be maximised when waves are small, and the machine response to be minimised in storms. All generation systems are sealed and dry inside the machines and power is transmitted to shore using standard subsea cables and equipment. The Pelamis is an offshore wave energy converter, operating in water depths greater than 50m, usually found 2-10km from the coast. [23] Electricity generated from these devices is 750 kVA (approx. 500 homes).[25]

      • Pelamis Wave Power have, to date, built and tested five full scale Pelamis machines, with a sixth currently under build for ScottishPower Renewables. The first of a second generation Pelamis design, the P2 Pelamis is currently being tested off the coast of Orkney, Scotland, for utility customer E.ON.[23]

      • Ocean Energy

        • The Backward Bent Duct uses wave energy to compress air in a plenum chamber. This compressed air is then

        • expanded through an air turbine to generate electricity.

        • The OE Buoy has been designed around the oscillating water column principle. To ensure survivability the platform has only a single moving part. Watch the video to see how the buoy works.[24]

      • Wavebob Limited

          • [21]

        • As waves run, the bodies move with respect to each other and actuate hydraulic cylinders which pump oil to drive a hydraulic motor/generator via an energy-smoothing system.Each Wavebob unit will carry three 500 kW alternators giving in total a rated output of 1.5MW. The preferable depths of deployment are greater than 70m. A ¼-scale prototype was tested in Galway Bay.[21]

        • The Wavebob is described as a point absorber device and generates power from each wave through the counteractive movements of a bob suspended from a floating Taurus. The Wavebob has the advantage of optimised power recovery dependant on the wave energy condition and does not require orientation with respect to the waves.[15]

        • See the short video below for an explanation of the Wavebob work and it's potential.

        • Wavebob has had 10 years of research & development. It's first sea trials were in 2006. It was the first device to generate electricity from wave in Ireland. As a sign of belive in the product it has has €5m of private capital invested to date.[21]

        • Wavebob's target installed WEC capacity is shown below in Figure 10.

        • Figure 10

        • Obstacles

        • Currently there is very little experience of electricity generation from wave energy. The major issues restricting the use of wave energy include:

        • The technology is currently in a developing phase, with very little demonstration experience. Wave technologies must be capable of withstanding extremely harsh weather conditions. This may add to the cost of design and materials. Because of location the maintenance costs may be relatively high. Current Irish government support levels are considered quite low, providing a low return on capital investment. The taxes on renewable energy technologies reduce the competitiveness of the technology. Grid connection and access is not fairly provided which may cause a problem for the development of wave energy [19]

          • Reducing operation and maintenance costs is key to successful economic implementation of wave energy stations. At the moment Wave Energy costs between 20-20 cents per KWh compared to wind 4-9 cents per kWh and solar 20-30 cents per kWh but with more and more research and each advancement in devices the cost is coming down.

          • Capital costs per kW of wave energy estimated to be double that of fossil fuel installations. Load Factor (average power divided by peak power) lower than conventional due to variability of the wave climate Wave energy costs can only be competitive if running costs are significantly lower than for a conventional station. Fuel costs are zero, therefore operation and maintenance costs are determining factors.[25]

How Ireland can become a leader in the Wave Energy sector.

If Ireland continues to implement policies such as its Four Phased Energy Strategy[15] and work along side private companies such as in the WestWave project it can become a leader in the Wave Energy sector. Hopefully the Government can see that Renewable Energies are the way forward and not cut funding for these projects. Imagine if Ireland was one of the market leaders in Ocean Energy, imagine what that could do for the wealth of the country, for example oil for Saudi Arabia.

Ireland needs to continue to fund R&D in its universities around the country for example, it has a centre of excellence in cork in the Hydraulics and Maritime Research Centre (HMRC) in University Cork. The HMRC is a centre of excellence within Ireland for Ocean Renewables and Coastal Engineering providing support to the maritime industry as well as fundamental R&D. The Centre, which is principally a dedicated research facility, also offers a teaching and education function. It houses the only facilities for wave simulation in Ireland with a Wave Flume and an Ocean Wave Basin.[26]

Conclusion

At the moment Ireland imports most of its energy needs with great cost to both the environment and the pocket of the consumer through the use of ever depleting fossil fuels.

Ocean Wave Energy along with other renewable energy sources in tandem can give Ireland the energy source it needs to provide its energy needs for the future. Fossil fuels are not going to last forever as Hubbert's Peak Theory suggests. Wave Energy can be a limitless, clean supply that we can always depend on. Providing government support and policy is kept in place the goal of a viable energy source can be reached. The WestWave project is an example of government collaboration with private companies such as Wavebob and Pelamis Wave Power.

To implement a renewable energy strategy will not be easy but it will be worth it in the long run for our future.

References

[1] Department of communications, Marine and Natural Resources, 2005, Ocean Energy in Ireland

http://www.seai.ie/Renewables/Ocean_Energy/Ocean_Energy_Information_Research/Ocean_Energy_Publications/Ocean_Energy_Strategy.pdf

[2] B.P., 2010, BP Statistical Review of World Energy,

http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2011/STAGING/local_assets/pdf/statistical_review_of_world_energy_full_

report_2011.pdf

[3] Harvesting Ocean Energy by Gerarld Wick and Walter Schmitt 1981. The Unesco Press.

[4] Renewable Energy. Power for a sustainable future by Godfrey Boyle 2004. Oxford University Press

[5] E.P.A.,2010, Annual report and accounts,

http://www.epa.ie/downloads/pubs/other/corporate/Annual_Report_2010.pdf

[6] Post Carbon Institute, The Ultimate Rollarcoaster Ride,

http://www.postcarbon.org/

[7] SEAI, Oct 2010, Ocean Energy roadmap to 2050,

http://www.seai.ie/Renewables/Ocean_Energy/Ocean_Energy_Information_Research/Ocean_Energy_Publications/Ocean_Energy_Roadmap_to_2050.pdf

[8]Ocean Energy, Marine Institute,

http://www.marine.ie/home/OceanEnergy.htm

[9)The WorldWaves global offshore database, World Fugro OCEANOR,

http://www.oceanor.no/related/59149/ewtec_09_Barstow_245.pdf

[10]Wave Energy Atlas, Marine Institute

http://www.marine.ie/NR/rdonlyres/90ECB08B-A746-4247-A277-7F9231BF2ED2/0/waveatlas.pdf

[11] SEAI, Tidal and Current Energy Resources in Ireland Report

http://www.seai.ie/Publications/Renewables_Publications/Tidal_Current_Energy_Resources_in_Ireland_Report.pdf

[12]Hubbert peak theory,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubbert_peak_theory#cite_note-cavallo-4

[13]Lecture 1, EE535: Renewable Energy: Systems, Technology & Economics, course notes

[14]WAVE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT in IRELAND,

http://www.waveplam.eu/page/default.asp?id=278

[15]Ocean Energy Strategy,2003, Marine Institute

http://www.marine.ie/NR/rdonlyres/86491414-3E7E-48E5-A0E1-287CA9191C61/0/OceanEnergyStrategy.pdf

[16]Westwave project, ESBI,

http://www.esbi.ie/img/news/pdfs/West-Wave-Project.pdf

[17]Bacon, P, “The Economic Benefits of Developing Ocean Energy in the Republic of Ireland”, Bacon

Associates, Dublin, 2004 (report prepared for MI and SEI).

[18]MENG EE535 Renewable Energy Systems, Technology and Economics - Lecture 10 2011

[19]The Effect of Renewable Energy Policies on Renewable Energy Production, 15 June 2011 Atlantic Economic Journal, Volume 39, Number 2, 195-196, DOI: 10.1007/s11293-011-9272-4

[20]Renewable energy resources and technologies applicable to Ireland, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 13, Issue 8, October 2009, Pages 1975-1984

[21]Wavebob Limited, www.wavebob.com

[22] Aquamarine Power Limited, www.aquamarinepower.com

[23]Pelamis Wave Power Limited, http://www.pelamiswave.com/our-technology/the-pelamis

[24]Ocean Energy Limited, http://www.oceanenergy.ie/oe-technology/platform.html

[25]Session 10 Wave Energy and Wave Devices, EE535: Renewable Energy: Systems, Technology & Economics, course notes

[26]Hydraulics and Maritime Research Centre, http://hmrc.ucc.ie/