Nicholas Comerford

The Winds Of Change: Can We Succeed In Blowing It?

ABSTRACT:

The EU Directive 2009/28/EC [1] stipulated that Ireland's share of energy from renewable resources in gross fuel consumption should be 16% by 2020. This paper will endeavour to ascertain if these targets are binding and indeed realistic giving our current economic disposition. We will examine the current renewable energy portfolio in Ireland, giving a brief overview of the technologies involved and make some assumptions as to what each renewable source will contribute to aid in achieving our objective. We will however concentrate on wind energy and the potential this technology has in the strategy for satisfying the EU Directive.

We will look at government policy and attempt to get some definitive answers to their renewable energy strategy in the wake of the financial crises that has gripped the world economies. The European perspective will also examined with regard to the incentives that the commission have established to aid in the promotion of renewable energy projects.

We will take an informative look at wind farm development within Ireland. The development process utilised in this report is under the auspice of the IWEA and is advocated as best practice for such developments. We will look at the planning constraints, the social and environmental impact, accessibility, the health and safety and economics of such a project and will determine if such a project will give a return on investment and how finance may be raised to fund such developments.

The problem with using renewable energy sources is that we need storage mechanisms to guarantee supply for demand. This report will examine the need for such storage and will determine if the stability of the national grid will be affected by feeding large amounts wind into the system.

The report will utilise as many clearly defined visuals as possible to back up the data being presented. It is hoped that this format will aid in bringing about a very readable document that everyone can digest.

Introduction

You may be wondering as to why we have used a visual at the very start of our report, however we feel it necessary to convey just how little renewable energy is sourced in Ireland and to give the reader a stark reminder as to the extent of the problems that we as a nation are facing.

The visual may shock a lot of you and if so, we have achieved our aim. The simple fact of the matter is that Ireland has over relied on the use of fossil fuels (coal, gas, oil) to fuel the energy requirements of the state. You will also know that burning such fossil fuels releases harmful emissions of Co₂ into the atmosphere, thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect and consequently global warming. The effects of global warming have been clearly defined through the media, most notably over the last few years. Why is that you may ask? Is it that we are only starting to wake up and smell the coffee at this stage or are we as a nation too preoccupied getting on with everyday life and the coping with the pressure that brings to really CARE about why these incidents in the world have occurred. Sure won’t we be dead and buried before the real effects of overreliance on fossil fuels takes place… think again, these fossil fuels are a finite resource, I.e. they will eventually run out, which is why every administration is now vying to develop renewable sources of energy in order to ensure security of supply for our own generation and more importantly for future generations.

The EU Directive 2009/28/EC was introduced for all member states in light of the aforementioned dilemma which aims to address the issues of climate change, energy efficiency and renewable energy policy. The Irish government has committed to meeting those targets, but as we know commitment, while welcomed does not necessarily mean that those targets will be realised. Ireland has a diverse range renewable energy sources at its disposal: Wind, Biomass, Solar, Geothermal, Hydro, wave and Tidal. Developing these indigenous sources is a given in order to ensure security of supply and in reducing our carbon footprint, therefore reducing our greenhouse gas emissions. The visuals below clearly emphasise how utilizing wind as the prime power generating source can contribute to a sustainable energy future for Ireland. The pie chart depicted below illustrates how wind generation only accounts for approximately 1% of CO₂ emissions compared to coal (66%) and gas (33%) respectfully[2]. These percentage emissions are depicted in tonnes per Gigawatt hour on the bar chart below and equates to 7 tonnes/Gigawatt hour for wind while its coal and gas counterparts account for 964 and 484 tonnes/Gigawatt hour respectfully. The data portrayed is inclusive of the emissions that are of consequence of the production of respective components during the manufacturing process and those emissions that can be attributed to the lifetime operation of each perspective power source.

There may be some confusion as to what we actually mean by renewable energy so bearing this in mind we feel it appropriate at this stage to define a renewable source and to introduce renewable portfolio of Ireland, giving a brief overview of technologies employed therein.

“Renewable energy is an unending source of energy that quickly replenishes itself.” [2] While the energy that is derived from renewable sources such as wind power, biomass, geothermal and small hydro-electric plants is Green Power. The term green is used because the electricity produced from these sources is by far, less damaging to the atmosphere than their fossil fuel counterparts.

IRELANDS RENEWABLE SOURCES:

SOLAR ENERGY:

There are two ways that solar energy can be converted into electricity. Solar thermal generation uses the suns energy as a source of heat which is captured, concentrated and then used to heat the working fluid in the production of electricity while photovoltaic or solar cell technology uses the physical characteristics of semiconductors to convert the incident sunlight into electricity. The electricity produced form the latter is direct current (DC) which can be used to charge batteries or can be converted to alternating current (AC) for connection to the grid.

There are three categories of solar collectors used for heat generation:

· Flat Plate Collectors use an absorber plate which is blackened to conduct more heat. This absorber plate is then positioned under singular or multiple transparent surfaces. The working fluid which is contained in a weatherproof tank is then heated by the transfer of solar energy through the interaction of the incident solar energy on the absorption plate.

· Evacuated Tube Collectors work on the same principles as their flat plate counterparts except that the pipe and collector are encased in a glass tube to insulate the collector, thereby reducing heat loss.

· Concentrating Solar Collectors work on the principle of using parabolic mirrored surfaces which concentrate the incident solar energy on the absorber which contains the fluid. Solar towers use flat tube collectors to divert the incident solar energy to absorbers that are located in towers. This type of collector is dependent on direct sunlight, produces very high temperatures and is primarily deployed for commercial power generating applications.

The Irish climate is not suitable for commercial power generating applications because of the direct sunlight implications but solar technologies have been successfully deployed in low temperature application systems (water & space heating) where direct sunlight is not a prerequisite. As of 2006 the installed solar heating and photovoltaic capacity of Ireland was 3.5MW and 0.3MW respectfully with the latter being extensively used for consumer products and in situations where grid connection has proved unviable.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:

A geothermal energy source can be considered as a reservoir inside the earth from which heat can be extracted to generate electric power through hot dry rock technologies and for space and water heating via geothermal pumps. The geothermal resources of a country are located through geophysical, geological and geochemical explorations. One such resource is hot dry rocks which are abundant in many parts of the world. Electricity is produced using this extremely high heat resource by pumping high pressure water via bore holes into this area whereby thermal energy is transferred to the water before being forced out a second bore hole. This heated water is then used by steam turbines in the generation of electricity.

The temperature several meters below the earth’s surface remains relatively constant due to the heating effects of the sun and our climate. Geothermal heat pumps can be used as a heating or cooling system by utilising this effect as a heat source during winter and conversely as a heat sink during the summer. These heat pumps are available for residential

and commercial purposes but are primarily utilised for the domestic heating market in Ireland. The system is comprised of:

· A heat pump which replicates the boiler on the conventional heating system.

· Buried piping (horizontal or vertical) which is located close to the building to transfer the heat as a source or sink.

· A heat distribution system.

The use of geothermal energy in Ireland is restricted to the use of geothermal heat pumps due to the adverse costs associated with the development of such generating technologies however it must be noted that a study carried out by CSA (Natural Resource Consultants) recorded temperatures in excess of 90⁰C at depths of 2,500 meters below the earth’s surface in the north of the country and concluded that there was good potential for commercial development of geothermal electricity within Ireland.

TIDAL ENERGY:

Tides are a consequence of the interaction between the earth and moon with the sun. A spring tide occurs when all three are in line while neap (short) tides occur when the earth and moon are at 90⁰. There are two types of energy associated with energy of this nature:

· Potential energy which is attributed to the oscillating currents.

· Kinetic energy which is attributed to the movement of the tidal currents.

There are two main types of tidal energy devices:

· Tidal barrages are used to artificially close a bay or an estuary with a large natural tidal range. There are several different modes of operation which include single and double basin systems, Ebb generation, two way generation and flood generation [2].

· Tidal stream devices work on the same principles as wind turbines in that they generate electricity from the kinetic energy of the tide via a turbine [17].

Tidal energy is primarily used for electricity generation and the technology associated with the resource is still in its infancy. Tidal velocities of at least 2m/s are currently required for efficient generation but it is envisaged that velocities of 1.5m/s will be used for electricity generation by 2015 [20].

HYDRO ELECTRICITY:

This technology is mature and the most globally used renewable energy technology. The conversion process utilises the kinetic energy of the water to produce electricity. The three most common types of hydroelectric plants are [17]:

• • Pumped storage is used to store energy for use when demand is high. This is achieved by pumping water from a lower to a higher reservoir when demand is low and using the potential energy of the stored energy to satisfy the demand when required.

  • Diversion plants generate electricity by using diverted water to drive a turbine. The diverted water originated from a river that was diverted through a canal.

  • Impoundment plants are the most common of the three and are categorised as large hydroelectric plants. These plants utilise the potential energy of water held in a dam to drive a turbine in the production of electricity and have capacities in excess of 30MW.

  • Hydro energy equates to just 6% of total connected generation capacity in Ireland and while there are limited resources in terms of large scale generation, it is recognised that there is significant potential for development of small scale hydroelectric plants.

WAVE ENERGY:

A good wave regime will normally be the first consideration when trying to exploit the resource of wave energy. These regimes are principally found on the western coasts but the exploitation of such sites is restricted to near shore and coastal sites, therefore limiting the deployment opportunities [2]. Winds are a consequence of the differential heating effects of the sun on the earth’s surface. These winds travel vast distances over large volumes of water and produce waves by transferring energy to the water. The quality of the wave is dependent on the strength and duration of the wind and electricity can be produced from this wave by using wave energy conversion technologies. These technologies exploit the mechanical motion of the wave and include: [17]

• Linear electric generators.

• Hydraulic devices.

• Elastomeric hose pumps.

• Hydroelectric/air turbine.

• Pump to shore.

The types of devices deployed are dependent on the regime site but the three most common devices are

• • Point absorbers typically use the motion of buoys to convert into hydraulic or mechanical power [17].

  • Oscillating water columns are probably the most tested near shore and off shore device. This technology uses the principal of alternating and expanding an air column in the tube to drive an air turbine. This effect is caused by placing the open end of a sealed tube just below the surface of the sea and allowing the interaction of the passing wave to expand and compress the air within the tube which forms the basis of this technology [2].

  • Overtopping devices allow the wave to traverse inclined barriers to fill artificial basins. The water in this reservoir is then piped through a water turbine to produce electricity [17].

There is currently no installed wave energy capacity in Ireland but an early study of European wave energy resources indicated that the average wave power of 76KW which occurred off the west coast of Ireland was the highest in Europe. A more detailed report was subsequently carried out in 2006 and concluded that the accessible wave energy potential to be in the region of 21TWh which would have been sufficient to provide 75% of Ireland’s electricity demand for that period [19].

BIOMASS:

Biomass refers to plants that are grown specifically for and to the use of dead organic materials in the production of biofuels. Biomass is often referred to as a carbon neutral fuel because the plants by nature absorb carbon dioxide as they grow and release an equal amount of CO₂ during combustion. Organic residues and energy crops constitute the two main categories of biomass and while electricity can be generated by direct consumption of biomass, an energy conversion process is required to utilise a material known as feedstock to fuel different heat and power applications.

· Energy Crops: there are three types of energy crops that are grown specifically for energy purposes in Ireland:

1. Short Rotation Forestry is used in the production of wood fuel from fast growing trees such as the Ash, Willow and Popular Sycamore varieties.

2. Hemp & Miscanthus are plants that are grown and harvested annually.

3. Oilseed Rape is a liquid biofuel energy crop which is used in the production of bioethanol, bio methanol and biodiesel for the transport sector.

· Organic Residues: these are used in the production of biofuels and encompass a variety of organic residual entities. Forest and agricultural residues comprise of branches, tree tops, manure, chicken litter, straw and slurry while food processing and vegetable oil wastes are also utilised in the production of these fuels.

Gasification and Anaerobic digestion are used to convert feedstock into fuel for heat and power generation purposes.

· Gasification: this process is used in the conversion of biomass to a gas fuel which can be formed into hydrogen for fuel cell applications or used as direct substitute for natural gas.

· Anaerobic digestion: this process utilises the breaking down of organic waste by bacteria to produce a biogas which can be used in CHP (combined heat and power) applications.

The Irish government have set ambitious targets for biomass in the white paper “Delivering a Sustainable Future for Ireland”.

· 800 MWe of CHP with an emphasis on biomass fuelled CHP [18].

· 12% RSE-H (although this figure does not have to fulfilled by biomass alone it is estimated that approximately 90% of renewable energy from heat will be sourced from biomass).

· 30% co-firing with biomass to be achieved at the three peat power plants by 2015.

· 10% biofuels which would exclusively derived from biomass.

We will now concentrate on wind energy and take a more detailed look at the technology involved therein.

WIND ENERGY:

Wind energy can be conceived as a form of solar energy due to the pressure differences that are caused by the differential heating effects of the sun on the earth’s surface. Wind is the consequence of movement of air in response to these pressure differences [2].

There has been a rapid rise in the electrical energy produced from wind since the inception of our first wind farm in 1992. The visual clearly emphasises the increase in growth and shows a staggering increase of 23% between ’07 - ’08 and ’08 - ’09 respectfully. The total energy supplied by wind in 2009 accounted for 10.5% of gross electrical consumption which equated to 2,955 Gigawatt hours (Gwh). You might find this hard to believe but our wee country actually reached the highest level of wind power penetration in the world between 2003 and 2006 when wind farm construction activity was at its peak. The installed capacity as at 12 January 2010 was 1264MW but this figure does not take into account the energy from the wind farms that are awaiting contract grid connection (155MW) and those proposed in the Gate 3 connection process (3,900MW). There is additional capacity targeted for connection from combined onshore wind farms (219MW) and offshore of (52MW) during 2010 [9]. The pie chart is indicative of the current wind capacity which is given as 1967.65MW [14] and reflects the increases alluded to above. The visual clearly identifies the geographical spread of wind farm activity within Ireland and incorporates the Arklow Bank off-shore facility. It is also evident that the majority (83.43%) of the 169 installed wind farms are located along the western seaboard of Ireland. Ireland will need to increase its investment in wind to approximately 6,000MW in order to achieve the RES-E target 40% and this would require in excess of 1,000 new turbines to be installed over the next nine years. The visual below reflects the investment required.

Ireland has been identified as one of the countries with the richest wind and ocean energy resources in the world. This was recognised in an ESBI study where they say “wind power could generate around 345TWh/y or around 19 times the current electricity production of the ESB system”. [10] Remarkably this figure was quoted on the assumption of on-shore only wind farms and indeed when wind farm construction was in its infancy. The data shown in the visual is for onshore wind capacity only because Ireland has only one offshore wind farm The Arklow Bank which is located 10km off the coast of Arklow in the Irish Sea and has a capacity of 25.2MW.

The Technology: [5]

Electricity is produced by wind turbines that utilise the kinetic energy (energy in motion) of the wind to rotate the blades of the turbine. This motion then rotates a drive shaft which is fed through a gearbox to create a magnetic field which in turn is used to generate an electric current. The output from the generator is then taken down the turbine tower via electric cables to a substation where it is eventually fed into the electricity grid. The spinning effect which causes the rotation is due to the aerodynamics of the blades. The process therefore has two distinct phases.

· The conversion of kinetic (wind) energy to mechanical energy.

· The conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy.

There are two types of basic wind turbines in commercial use today.

· Horizontal axis turbine. (The shaft rotates horizontal to the ground)

· Vertical axis turbine. (The shaft rotates vertical to the ground)

Horizontal axis turbines are the most common used in Ireland. They are characterised by three rotor blades and are raised on a vertical towers to give adequate clearance for the blades to rotate in the clean air. This type of turbine imposes certain design restrictions due to the nature of this arrangement which necessitates the gearbox and generator which is enclosed in a nacelle to be placed on the tower, therefore adding to the cost of installation and maintenance. This type of turbine utilises a yawing system which enables the nacelle (enclosure) and subsequently the rotors to change direction in tandem with the wind. Horizontal axis turbines will start to rotate at Beaufort Force 3 which equates to 3-5 m/s and will reach maximum electricity output with wind speeds of approximately 12 – 14 m/s. The turbines are shutdown at very high wind speed (Beaufort Force 10 and greater) to reduce wear and tear. This proceedure may appear to be a contradiction to wind generating principles but in fact there is only a small amount of electricity lost because winds of this nature (believe it or not) only occur a handful of hours per year [5]. There are three types and two varieties of horizontal axis turbines that have evolved since the inception of wind generating technology. The earliest type date as far back as the 12^th century, consisted of four blades and were utilised mainly in Holland to generate electrcity. The windmills in the 19^th century were used to pump water and were characterised by a multiple of blades while their modern counterparts, used for commercial use are normally three bladed with computer monitored motors. The varieties relate to the type of generator used (synchronous or asynchronous) the former has a varying output and needs to be passed through a rectifier and inverter before being passed into the electric grid while the latter does not require this overhead.

Vertical axis turbines:

Turbines of this type do not require the yawing system and so are designed to operate with wind blowing in any direction. They have all their weight supported by a ground level bearing and the nacelle can also be at ground level therefore easing maintanence costs [2]. These turbines have not gained considerable commercial success but they are operational in Ireland today in the commercial and domestic market [12].

Rotar Design: [2]

Rotars for modern wind turbines are made from a variety of different materials to reflect the demands of modern design techniques. Glass reinforced plastic and wood epoxy epitimise strength and durability. The shape of the rotar is aerodynamically determinrd by one of two controll methods used to prevent the rotar from turning too fast in high winds. The stall controlled method uses the principal of rotational speed limitation to effectively stall the rotar in high wind speeds. This is achieved by using blades of a fixed shape and orientation to promote this principle.

The pitch controlled method has become the most popular method for speed control due to its versatile design that allows the aerodynamic effectiveness of the blades to be adjusted depending on the speed of the wind. This concept leads to better operation efficiency by enabling some output control

· Site track layout: the location of the turbines and site entrance(s) will determine the site track layout, however other aspects that may need consideration before finalising the layout are:

a. The use of existing site tracks where possible

b. There may be ecological, archaeological, or other reasons why areas should be avoided.

c. The tracks should follow land contours where possible provided other engineering and environmental issues are resolved.

d. The maximum construction gradient.

e. The largest vehicles used on site should be used in determining the bending and turning circles.

f. Extra excavation work may be necessary to cater for the turning radius of the vehicles above when the trailer body is larger than the wheel base.

g. Some areas may need to be avoided depending on the advice of professionals in the fields of geotechnical, archaeological and ecological sectors.

h. The confirmation of the suitability of drainage measures for the project especially in relation to sensitive soils.

It is recommended that an engineer carry out a track buildability survey to ascertain the suitability of the proposed site with regard to the topographical features and noting any remedial work that is necessary to strengthen bridges etc.

· Control house or substation: The outline design that is prepared for planning purposes will need to provide for the requirements of the turbine manufacturer and Eirgrid. The substation should be constructed at the extremity of the wind farm, consider visual impact, provide for the health, safety and welfare of the substation operatives and should not obstruct in any way. The location should not be in the direction of the prevailing winds and be in the general direction of the grid connection point.

· Ancillary development: The local authority roads engineer should be consulted when modifications are required to existing site entrances because it is preferential to use these point(s) of access in lieu of new constructions.

Environmental Impact & Planning Permission:

· Wind Monitoring & Mast Planning Permission: A planning application should be submitted to the local authority once a suitable site has been identified and that said permission should be for a period of at least 3 years.

· Environmental Impact Assessment of Wind Farm (EIA): When preparing an EIA the following Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) documents should be referenced. One should take care as to include any recent amendments in

the documents concerned.

a. “Guidelines on the information to be contained in the Environmental Impact Survey (EIS) 2002”.

b. “Advice Notes on Current Practice in the Preparation of EIS”.

c. “DoEHLG (Department of the Environment Community and Local Government) Wind Farm Planning Guidelines 2006”.

An EIA is deemed mandatory when the total output is greater than 5MW or when there are 5 or more turbines being proposed in the development. The local authority concerned may in some cases request an EIA for a development that is under this threshold if they deem it to have a significant environmental impact, otherwise the preparation of an environmental report will normally suffice. The scope of this report should be agreed with a representative of the planning authority in a pre-planning meeting and should include the following issues and impacts that are:

a. Environmentally based.

b. Likely to occur.

c. Significant & adverse.

The following is typical of the information that will be required:

a. ZTV (Visual impact assessment using detailed visual maps and illustrations). The visual impact on the environment is by and large the most debated issue in relation to wind farm development. Wind farms are by nature “pardon the pun” large developments and therefore rather conspicuous and while the visual impact can be masked by some innovative design techniques, they are considered intrusive.

b. Photomontages of the proposed development.

c. Habitat survey - The National Park & Wildlife Service (NPWS) should be consulted to determine if protected habitats are present and also for the presence of protected species however a detailed ecological survey may or may not be necessary depending on the site location and the sites proximity to:

· Designated areas for environmental protection.

· Recorded sites & monuments.

d. Analysis of the impact of noise for houses within 500m of the turbines. Noise is recognised as the second major environmental concern for the inhabitants of the catchment area of the proposed development. The noise is attributed to rotor, electrical and mechanical noise emanating from the turbine. The noise is characterised by low frequency whirring similar to that of a wind blowing in the trees however the whirring is constant and is exacerbated by low wind speeds. The unwanted effects of noise can be mitigated by background noise provided the turbines are located far enough away from dwellings within the development area. This environmental analysis achieved by use of a noise model for the areas concerned [2].

e. Shadow flicker – buildings within 10 rotor diameters of the turbines are likely to experience shadow flicker. The shadow is caused by the blades of the turbine and the flicker is the consequence of the rotation of the blades. Shadow flicker only occurs when the sun is shining at a low angle, the turbine is directly between the sun and the effected property and when there is sufficient for the turbine blades to rotate. These unwanted effects can be mitigated in using software to prevent the turbine from operating when these aforementioned conditions prevail and in the use of screening methods where appropriate. It is recommended that the duration of shadow flicker within the affected area does not exceed 30 minutes per day or a total of 30 hours per year [15].

f. Ecological impact – the main ecological impact of wind farm development relates to their effect on bird populations and therefore several bird monitoring surveys may need to be undertaken especially when birds of an endangered species are known to be in close proximity to the location of the wind farm. The regional fisheries board will also need to be consulted where drainage of the site results in sediment and nutrient release into rivers.

g. Soil & geology impact – the local authority will require a report by an experienced geotechnical engineer, geologist or other appropriate qualified professionals when dealing with peat and other sensitive soils because soils of this nature are compositely different than their mineral counterparts. When developing on these sensitive areas, it will be necessary to consult a multi-disciplinary team to ascertain from their expertise, the effect the development will have on the hydrology and ecology of the site. The assessment will also need to address the effects of long term peat stability and the construction methodologies used to counteract these unwanted effects.

h. Impact on telecommunications systems – All Telco’s and third parties who utilise their masts should be provided with all relevant information regarding the proposed development, to assess the level of impact if any that the turbines will have on their communication signals. Point to point and point to multipoint (VHF, UHF) signals can be interfered with and with regard to the latter RTE have insisted that each prospective developer sign a protocol that indemnifies the station against any remedial network costs which are necessary as a consequence of the development.

The Irish Aviation Authority should also be notified with regard to effects on guidance systems, RADAR and airports.

1. Consents, Contracts & Construction: Leases for the land concerned should be negotiated as soon as possible because technicalities may lead to long delays. It is paramount to keep communication channels open with the landowner and afford reasonable time for legal consideration. The details of lease regarding the wind monitoring mast should include the duration of monitoring, area of land concerned, insurance, third party rights (grazing), title to data & equipment and liability. The structure of the wind farm will be determined by the EIA analysis and the wind monitoring data alluded to above, it is therefore not possible to agree a wind farm lease at this juncture and is prudent to await the planning permission of same. Way leaves and rights of way may be required by the developer when wind farm access is required through public roads, when choosing to negotiate a grid connection and when a contestable grid connection arises. When negotiating way leaves and rights of way, appropriate care and attention must be afforded to each party concerned. Eirgrid and ESB networks considerations must also be catered for because access cables may need to go underground (on public roads) and in such instances it will be necessary for the local authority concerned to approve the route. The local authority will have to issue road opening licences when required and may advocate the use of a traffic management plan depending on the chosen route.

It is recommended that the contractor who is hired for the construction of the wind farm employ an Environmental, Health & Safety Management System (EHS) and could consider amongst other things:

· Dust & construction noise management

· Fire hazard management

· Surface water monitoring

· Erosion & sediment control

· Water run-off

· Storage of hazardous materials

· Emergency & incident management

· Legal permit & compliance issues

It should also be noted that the wind energy industry in Ireland does not conform to the typical construction methodology whereby the construction and design of the wind farm is carried out by two separate entities (consulting engineer & contractor); therefore careful consideration should be afforded to the type of contract offered. The current situation within Ireland is for the contractor (often turbine manufacturer) to administer both the design and construction phases of the development. The contractor will sub contract the electrical, civil and structural design of the project to a third party who may then decide to sub contract elements to another party. These arrangements can become complicated and often lead to protracted delays and unnecessary complications. The type of contract when issued will be of interest to the financial institutions in determining the level of risk involved in the construction phase of the development. The banks would prefer to have fixed price contracts but such contracts are normally only procured when the scope of the development is concrete with no additional scoping required.

Health & Safety: The developer has a legal responsibility to adhere to health & safety guidelines in the design, construction and operation of the wind farm. A Project Supervisor Design Process (PSDP) must be appointed in writing before the design commences and a Project Supervisor Construction Stage (PSCS) must be appointed in writing before construction begins. The developer can (if suitably qualified) appoint himself or alternately, must ensure that both parties alluded to above are above repute and are experienced to fulfil such roles. It is common practice for the designer to be appointed PDSP and the contractor to be appointed PSCS. The safety file for the completed structure should be retained and made available to facilitate maintenance and renovation work to be carried out. The health & safety plan prepared by the PSDP should be issued to all parties tendering for the project and to inform the Health & Safety Authority of the PSDP appointment should the construction take more than 30 days. The PSDP should identify any health & safety risk and take appropriate steps to eradicate or at worst minimise such risks.

2. Operation and Maintenance this section lends itself to the on-going operation and maintenance of the wind farm and will encompass the operation and environmental monitoring along with the preparation of financial reports for the development. The annual operation & maintenance costs will include:

· Rates

· Land rental

· Insurance

· Servicing & spare parts

· Power charges

· Monitoring & administration

· Others

The developer should monitor the output of the farm as a whole and the output from each perspective turbine on the site. This can be achieved using Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems. These systems are used for large scale automated industrial processes. Data is gathered from monitoring sensors on the turbines and relayed back to a central computer where operations are carried out on the information received to generate the report [16]. The wind monitoring mast is also a valuable resource in determining the performance trends and patterns of the farm and can be utilised in the analysis process. These tests will aid in identifying any deviations in the performance parameters of the farm.

3. Decommissioning or Repowering: It is most likely that a turbine will be repowered rather than decommissioned after its lifespan (20 – 30 years) by replacing the turbine or elements thereof. If the former is chosen then there may be planning permission required if a provision for same has not been included in the original planning application. There may also be a cost element incurred by the developer if the decommissioning process exceeds scrap value for the turbine.

ENERGY SRORAGE:

It has been recognised that the major drawback of using renewable energy is the need for storage. Contrary to what we might believe, the wind doesn’t always blow in Ireland and as a consequence it cannot be solely relied upon to provide power. The government have committed to achieving 40% of electricity to be generated by renewables by 2020 and wind is the primary driving force to fulfilling this objective. This increasing wind capacity only exacerbates the problems and alternative sources of energy (gas power plants) will be required to ensure stability of supply. This seems to be contradictive to the production of green energy but nonetheless necessary because of the non-linearity of the energy produced. Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS) is one such method of storage that is been advocated as a possible solution to this dilemma. This technology uses the concept of converting electrical energy into potential energy by moving water from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir and then discharging that water through turbines to produce electricity. Irelands only source of PHS is Turlough Hill which became operational in 1974 and has a generating capacity of 293MW. This capacity is achieved using four 73MW turbines and provides a storage capacity of 1.6GWh’s [17].

THE NATIONAL GRID:

The “The All Island Grid Study” was commissioned by department of Communications, Energy and National Resources to investigate the impact that this extra capacity would have on our transmission system. The study concluded that 47% of Ireland’s electricity demand could be achieved with an installed wind capacity of 8000MW and that the electricity generated from wind should be held at a maximum of 60% in order to secure system stability [17]. Eirgrid have introduced a number of initiatives in the implementation of renewable energy into the grid. One such initiative is the gate process which has a provision for large batches of wind connection applications to be studied together [22].

Government Policy:

The European Perspective:

The European directive 2009/28/EC is a consequence of new climate and energy targets that were set by the European Union in 2007. This policy advocated a 20% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, that 20% of the union’s energy be consumed from renewable sources and that the EU attain 20% energy efficiency by 2020. Ireland was set a binding target of achieving 16% of its energy from renewable sources by 2020. This target though binding was flexible in that each member state could determine how to attain these targets across the sectors of heat (RES-H), electricity (RES-E) and transport (RES-T). A decision by the European commission made on the 30^th June 2009 required each member state to submit a National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) which conformed to a template that was administered by the commission to uniform the plans for each perspective state.

The European Energy research Alliance (EERA) was established by the European Commission as part of their strategic energy plan for Europe and to aid in attaining the renewable energy targets set out for 2020. The program enables researchers from across the Eurozone to accelerate the development of renewable technologies. Several programmes have already been launched in the fields of wind, smart grids, geothermal, carbon capture and storage, photovoltaic and materials for nuclear and bio energy [6].

The European Investment Bank (EIB) will play a primary role in financing renewable energy projects and help build towards a low carbon future in Europe. The bank has increased its renewable energy portfolio to €19 billion in 2010 which represents a significant increase and accounts for 30% of its lending within the union. This is testimony that renewable energy investment is recognised as been a viable and major source of future revenue. This figure is all the more impressive given the current economic climate [6].

The European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures (ESFRI) will identify and aid in the establishment or indeed enhancement of research infrastructures within the zone. These centres of excellence will endeavour to keep us at the forefront with respect to technological advances and innovation within the renewable energy sector [6].

There is one pan European infrastructure that is of particular interest in wind energy development. The Wind Scanner is estimated to cost between 45 and 60 million euro and it is expected to be operational in 2013. The technology associated with this project will enable detailed maps of wind conditions in relation to wind farms to be produced and utilising that data to develop stronger and lighter wind turbines which will operate with better efficiency [6].

The Irish Perspective:

Our nations over reliance on fossil fuel have in turn fuelled the Irish government to produce a white paper “Delivering a Sustainable Energy Future for Ireland” [3] which was published on 12^th March 2007 by the Minister for Communications, Marine and Natural Resources. This paper sets out targets with regard to the 2008-2012-kyoto protocol for greenhouse gas emissions and the period to 2020 which deals with the sustainable energy strategy for Ireland. The government have remained steadfast in their commitment to deliver the targets as set in the EU directive and realise that delivering this sustainable future is paramount for the security of supply for our nation. The fact that this is a directive gives legal and therefore binding obligations to all member states to comply irrespective of national economic circumstance. The last five years have seen a significant increase in the generation of electricity from renewable sources and this aforementioned increase is largely attributed to on shore wind farming in Ireland. The visual below represents Irelands projected growth in wind capacity to 2020.

The main support for RES-H is the greener homes grant scheme which is administered for the domestic market but the Renewable Heat Deployment Programme (ReHEAT) that was available to the commercial and public sectors was suspended due to financial constraints. A similar fate was bestowed upon the grants for biomass and anaerobic digestion CHP which were administered under the CHP deployment scheme [22].

Cost of Wind:

A study carried out by Eirgrid and the SEAI on the Irish electricity system was published on the 23^rd February 2011. The report revealed that the wholesale price of electricity has not been increased by the extra penetration of wind on the network. The report utilised detailed modelling tools and proved that wind generation actually lowered wholesale prices by €70million which when offset against the public service obligation levy (PSO) and other wind generation costs, resulted in a less than half of one percent increase [21]. Wind is becoming a very important source of renewable energy for a substantial number of countries in their fight for security of supply and sustainability. The cost of wind has dropped significantly since the inception of the first wind farms and historically had reached a point where the cost of wind had become competitive with conventional technologies. Recent market trends suggest that the cost of new wind installations and investment per MW is increasing [23]. This increase may be attributed to the cost of raw materials and the tightness in the wind turbine market; however it must be noted that the cost of wind varies with every country. The illustrations below indicate the typical costs associated with on shore wind farm project development applicable to Ireland. A thorough understanding of each aspect of the expenditure is crucial in estimating the true cost of wind. Total capital costs are in the region of 1.6 to 2 million €/MW installed for developments in the 10MW category with turbine costs ranging from 900,000 to 1,000,000 €/MW depending on the type of turbine and the nature of the development while connection costs are typically in the region of 150,000 to 300,000 €/MW [24]. The later expenditure cost may be mitigated by the introduction of contestability at distribution level which will enable a contractor other than the proprietor of the transmission system to build the connection for the development [24].

The costs associated with wind farm development are frontloaded and there is no reason not to expect a reasonable return on investment provided the best practice guidelines are adhered to. Financers who fund wind development projects are aware of the dynamic of Irish wind and procuring finance for such developments will be enhanced with the appropriate documentation as detailed in the section entitled “Wind Project Development”.

Conclusion:

The extent of our nations over reliance on fossil fuels was evident in 2006 when we imported 91% of our total consumption of energy and in doing so became the most energy import dependent country in the EU. The government spends in excess of €6billion annually for importing coal, gas and oil and are committed to developing our indigenous renewable energy resources to significantly reduce this unsustainable economic burden. Ireland has a diverse range renewable energy sources at its disposal and development of these technologies is paramount in developing a sustainable future for Ireland.

It is apparent from the data that Ireland is indeed on target to meet and even surpass the targets set out in the EU Directive 2009/28/EC with wind energy being the major contributory factor in the realisation of this objective. The government have by in large adhered to its renewable energy policies as published in the white paper titled “Delivering a Sustainable Future for Ireland” and are on course to have one of the highest levels of wind power as a percentage of system demand in Europe. This deliverance has, is and will continue to take place during this unprecedented period of economic instability and although budgetary constraints will have an impact on some of the renewable energy incentives initiated by the government, they will not be detrimental to our renewable energy strategy.

Now we could be a little pessimistic when the ESRI uses the IDEM electricity dispatch model to generate its predictions based on SEI specified renewable contributions. They believe that these predictions are currently the best model we have at our disposal but acknowledge limitations of same in that they assume that each and every policy target can be met. Now I don’t know about you but this is a little bit Irish, sure if we could all take policy implementation for granted let alone reaching those policy targets then every objective could be realised. Experience has thought us that government policy is just fickle and while they may be intent on implementing those policies, they can just as easily fall by the wayside. This pessimistic perspective is however, unfounded and the relinquishment of our sovereignty to the EU should accelerate and not impede our renewable energy policies. The EU directive is binding for all member states and failing to meet our targets will no doubt result in financial penalties, however with the EU in control of our finances this scenario is most unlikely because the EU will want its directive realised.

It is the responsibility of each respective energy provider in the state to supply its customers with the cheapest possible energy. There has been a misconception that the wholesale price of electricity has been inflated to cover the costs associated with renewable wind energy generation. The investment in this technology will in fact result in lowering the wholesale price of electricity while alleviating our dependence on fossil fuels. Wind is currently supplying 8.7% of our countries electricity demand and this statistic places us fourth in the world with respect to RES-E generation from wind [22]. Ireland should be proud of the advances made thus far into renewable energy generation technologies and embrace the green initiatives that are being advocated on our journey to a sustainable future. Ireland’s riches in renewable energy resources is akin to the fossil wealth of the OPEC countries but rather than producing and exporting pollutant finite energy, we will be producing and exporting a perpetual green alternative.

REFERENCES:

1.

eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009...

2.

Renewable Energy Focus Handbook

3.

www.dcenr.gov.ie/Energy/Sustainable+and+Renewable+Energy+Division/REFIT.htm

4.

www.iwea.com/.../IWEA%20Policy%20Documents/...

5.

http://www.iwea.com/index.cfm

6.

http://eandemanagement.com

7.

http://www.seai.ie/Renewables/REIO/

8.

www.environ.ie/en/Publications/.../FileDownLoad,1633,en.pdf

9.

http://www.iwea.com/index.cfm/page/windenergy onshore

10.

ESB International and ETSU, March 1997: Total Renewable Energy Resource in Ireland

11.

http://windturbinezone.com/wind-turbine/horizontal-wind-turbine

12.

http://www.techstore.ie/Renewable-Energy/Wind-Energy/Wind-Turbines.html#types

13.

http://www.motiva.fi/myllarin_tuulivoima/windpower%20web/en/tour/wres/shear.htm

14.

http://www.iwea.com/index.cfm/page/countycomparison

15.

www.environ.ie/en/Publications/.../FileDownLoad,1633,en.pdf

16.

http://www.roseindia.net/technology/scada/what-is-SCADA.shtml

17.

arrow.dit.ie/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context...

18.

http://houseenergyrater.com/site/latest/ireland-s-renewable-energy-targets-linked-to-sustainability-of-biomass.html

19.

http://www.seai.ie/Renewables/Ocean_Energy/Ocean_Energy_Information_Research/Irelands_Wave_and_Tidal_Energy_Resources/

20.

http://www.marine.ie/home/services/operational/oceanenergy/Tidal+Energy.htm

21.

http://www.eirgrid.com/aboutus/latestnews/

22.

www.reshaping-res-policy.eu/.../RE-SHAPING_Renewable-Energy-P

23.

http://www.ieawind.org/Task_26.html

24.

http://www.seai.ie/Renewables/Wind_Energy/Wind_Energy_Annual_Reports/