AP Review Sheet
118 WAYS TO GO APES PUT THESE FACTS ON INDEX CARDS..THE BOLD TYPE GOES ON ONE SIDE, THE REGULAR ON THE OTHER. WHEN I APPROACH YOU, I WILL SAY WHAT IS IN BOLD TYPE. YOU HAVE A SECOND OR LESS TO REPLY WITH THE REST. GOOD LUCK & MAY THE FORCE (GAIA) BE WITH YOU!
1. Ionizing radiation: enough energy to knock electrons from atoms forming ions, capable of causing cancer (gamma-Xrays-UV)
2. High Quality Energy: organized & concentrated, can perform useful work (fossil fuel & nuclear)
3. Low Quality Energy: disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air wind, solar)
4. First Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another
5. Second Law of Thermodynamics: when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat)
6. Natural radioactive decay: unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha & beta particles
7. Half life: the time it takes for ½ the mass of a radioisotope to decay
8. Estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe level: approximately 10 half-lives
9. Nuclear Fission: nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons
10. Nuclear Fusion: 2 isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus. Expensive, break even point not reached yet
11. Ore: a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine
12. Organic fertilizer: slow acting & long lasting because the organic remains need time to be decomposed
13. Best solution to Energy shortage: conservation and increase efficiency
14. Surface mining: cheaper & can remove more mineral, less hazardous to workers
15. Humus: organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms
16. Leaching: removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards
17. Illuviation: deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B)
18. Loam: perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, clay
19. Conservation: allows the use of resources in a responsible manner
Preservation: setting aside areas & protecting them from human activities
20. Parts of the hydrologic cycle: evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, infiltration
21. Aquifer: any water bearing layer in the ground
22. Cone of depression: lowering of the water table around a pumping well
23. Salt water intrusion: near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the acquifer
24. ENSO: El Nino Southern Oscillation, see-sawing of air pressure over the S. Pacific
25. During an El Nino year: trade winds weaken & warm water sloshed back to SA
During a Non El Nino year: Easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America
26. Effects of El Nino: upwelling decreases disrupting food chains, N US has mild winters, SW US has increased rainfall, less Atlantic Hurricanes
27. Nitrogen fixing: because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia by bacteria (rhizobium)
28. Ammonification: decomposers covert organic waste into ammonia
29. Nitrification: ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO-3)
30. Assimilation: inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins
31. Denitrification: bacteria convert ammonia back into N
32. Phosphorus does not circulate as easily as N because: it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate rocks
33. Sustainability: the ability to meet humanities current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
34. Excess phosphorus is added to aquatic ecosystems by: runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, discharge of sewage
35. Photosynthesis: plants convert atmospheric C (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6)
36. Aerobic respiration: oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2
37. Largest reservoirs of C: carbonate rocks first, oceans second
38. Biotic/abiotic: living & nonliving components of an ecosystem
39. Producer/Autotroph: photosynthetic life
40. Fecal coliform/Enterococcus: : indicator of sewage contamination
41. Energy flow in food webs: only 10% of the usable energy is transferred because usable energy lost as heat (2nd law), not all biomass is digested & absorbed, predators expend energy to catch prey
42. Chlorine: (good>disinfection of water)( bad>forms trihalomethanes)
43. Primary succession: development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life (lava)
Secondary succession: life progresses where soil remains (clear cut forest, fire)
44. Cogeneration: using waste heat to make electricity
45. Mutualism: symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit
46. Commensalism: symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits & the other is unaffected
47. Parasitism: relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host
48. Biome: large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals
49. Carrying capacity: the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area
50. R strategist: reproduce early, many small unprotected offspring
K strategist: reproduce late, few, cared for offspring
51. Positive feedback: when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition (EX: warmer Earth - snow melts - less sunlight is reflected & more is absorbed, therefore warmer earth)
52. Natural selection: organisms that possess favorable adaptations pass them onto the next generation
53. Malthus: said human population cannot continue to increase..consequences will be war, famine & disease
54. Doubling time: rule of 70 70 divided by the percent growth rate
55. Replacement level fertility: the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1 developed, 2.7 developing)
56. World Population is: 7.4 billion
US Population: over 320 million
57. Preindustrial stage: birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high
58. Transitional stage: death rate lower, better health care, population grows fast
59. Industrial stage: decline in birth rate, population growth slows
60. Postindustrial stage: low birth & death rates
61. Age structure diagrams: (broad base, rapid growth)(narrow base, negative growth)(uniform shape, zero growth)
62. 1st & 2nd most populated countries: China & India
63. Most important thing affecting population growth: low status of women
64. Ways to decrease birth rate: family planning, contraception, economic rewards & penalties
65. Percent water on earth by type: 97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater
66. Salinazation of soil: in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind
67. Ways to conserve water: (agriculture, drip/trickle irrigation)(industry,recyling)(home, use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures)
68. Point vs non point sources: (Point, from specific location such as pipe)(Non-point, from over an area such as runoff)
69. BOD: biological oxygen demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials
70. Eutrophication: rapid algal growth caused by an excess of N & P
71. Hypoxia: when aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the DO drops & the water cannot support life
72. Minamata Disease: mental impairments caused by mercury
73. Primary air pollutants: produced by humans & nature (CO,CO2,SO2,NO,hydrocarbons, particulates)
74. Negative feedback: when a changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition (EX: warmer earth - more ocean evaporation - more stratus clouds - less sunlight reaches the ground - therefore cooler Earth)
75. Particulate matter (source,effect,reduction): (burning fossil fuels & diesel exhaust) (reduces visibility & respiratory irritation) (filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy)
76. Nitrogen Oxides: (Source: auto exhaust) (Effects: acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog & ozone) ( Equation for acid formation: NO + O2 = NO2 + H2O = HNO3) (Reduction: catalytic converter)
77. Sulfur oxides: (Source: coal burning) (Effects: acid deposition, respiratory irritation, damages plants) (Equation for acid formation: SO2 + O2 = SO3 + H2O = H2SO4) (Reduction: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel)
78. Carbon oxides: (Source: auto exhaust, incomplete combustion) (Effects: CO binds to hemoglobin reducing bloods ability to carry O, CO2 contributes to global warming)(Reduction: catalytic converter, emission testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transit)
79. Ozone: (Formation: secondary pollutant, NO2+UV=NO+O O+O2=O3, with VOC’s)(Effects: respiratory irritant, plant damage) (Reduction: reduce NO emissions & VOCs)
80. Radon: radioactive gas, formed from the decay of Uranium, causes lung cancer and is a problem in the Reading Prong
81. Photochemical smog: formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC,O)
82. Acid deposition: caused by sulfuric and nitric acids resulting in lowered pH of surface waters
83. Greenhouse gases: (Examples: H2O, CO2, O3, methane (CH4), CFC’s) (EFFECT: they trap outgoing infrared (heat) energy causing earth to warm
84. Effects of global warming: rising sealevel (thermal expansion), extreme weather, droughts (famine), extinctions
85. Ozone depletion caused by: CFC’s, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halon, methyl bromide all of which attack stratospheric ozone
86. Effects of ozone depletion: increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth
87. Love Canal, NY: chemicals buried in old canal and school & homes built over it causing birth defects & cancer
88. Municpal solid waste is mostly: paper and most is landfilled
89. True cost / External costs: harmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a products price
90. Sanitary landfill problems and solutions: (leachate, liner with collection system) (methane gas, collect gas and burn) (volume of garbage, compact & reduce)
91. Incineration advantages: volume of waste reduced by 90% & waste heat can be used
92. Incineration disadvantages: toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride—dioxin), scrubbers & electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal (contains heavy metals)
93. Best way to solve waste problem: reduce the amounts of waste at the source
94. Keystone species: species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than others, ex sea otter
95. Indicator species: species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged ex trout
96. Most endangered species: have a small range, require large territory or live on an island
97. In natural ecosystems, 50-90% of pest species are kept under control by:predators, diseases, parasites
98. Major insecticide groups and examples: (chlorinated hydrocarbons, DDT) (organophosphates, malathion) (carbamates, aldicarb)
99. Pesticide pros: saves lives from insect transmitted disease, increases food supply, increases profits for farmers
100. Pesticide cons: genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnification
101. Natural pest control: better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, biopesticides, sex attractants
102. Electricity is generated by: using steam (from water boiled by fossils fuels or nuclear) or falling water to turn a generator
103. Petroleum forms from: microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat & pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons
104. Pros of petroleum: cheap, easily transported, high quality energy
105. Cons of petroleum: reserves depleted soon, pollution during drilling, transport and refining, burning makes CO2
106. Steps in coal formation: peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite
107. Major parts of a nuclear reactor: core, control rods, steam generator, turbine, containment building
108. Two most serious nuclear accidents: (Chernobyl,Ukraine) (Three Mile Island, PA)
109. Alternate energy sources: wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells
110. LD50: the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population
111. Mutagen, Teratogen, Carcinogen: causes hereditary changes, Fetus deformities, cancer
112. Endangered species: North spotted Owl (loss of old growth forest), Bald Eagle (thinning of eggs caused by DDT), Piping Plover (nesting areas threatened by development)
113. LI Exotic species: gypsy moth, Asian Long Horned Beetle
114. Garret Hardin & The Tragedy of the Commons: Freedom to breed is bringing ruin to all. Global commons such as atmosphere & oceans are used by all and owned by none
115. Volcanoes and Earthquakes occur: at plate boundaries (divergent, spreading, mid-ocean ridges) (convergent, trenches) (transform, sliding, San Andreas)
116. Sources of mercury: burning coal, Compact Fluorescent bulbs
117. Major source of sulfur: burning coal
118. Threshold dose: the maximum dose that has no measurable effect
LAWS, LAWS & MORE LAWS
As an added bonus, recite the entire 17 laws by memory and earn 3 point on your 4th quarter average. I grouped them by topic to help you. This must be done before the AP Exam!
MINING
1. Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act: requires coal strip mines to reclaim the land
2. Madrid Protocol: Moratorium on mineral exploration for 50 years in Antarctica
WATER
3. Safe Drinking Water Act: set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants in drinking water that may have adverse effects on human health
4. Clean Water Act: set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways..aim to make surface waters swimmable and fishable
5. Ocean Dumping Ban Act: bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge & industrial waste in the ocean
AIR
6. Clean Air Act: Set emission standards for cars, and limits for release of air pollutants
7. Kyoto Protocol: controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries
8. Montreal Protocol: phaseout of ozone depleting substances
WASTE
9. Resource Conservation & Recovery Act: controls hazardous waste with a cradle to grave system
10. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation & Liability Act:Superfund, designed to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste dump sites
11. Nuclear Waste Policy Act: US government must develop a high level nuclear waste site (Yucca Mtn)
LIFE
12. Endangered Species Act: identifies threatened and endangered species in the US, and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations
13. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species: lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products
14. Magnuson- Stevens Act: Mangaement of marine fisheries
15. Food Quality Protection Act: set pesticide limits in food, & all active and inactive ingredients must be screened for estrogenic/endocrine effects
GENERAL
16. National Environmental Policy Act: Environmental Impact Statements must be done before any project affecting federal lands can be started
17. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants: Seeks to protect human health from the 12 most toxic chemicals (includes 8 chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides / DDT can be used for malaria control)