Hand Tools

Measuring and marking out tools

The pencil versus the marking knife

A sharp 2B grade pencil can be a very useful implement-as long as it is kept sharp. If blunt, the pencil line can be 2 mm thick and, therefore, inaccurate. A carpenter's pencil has a wide, and therefore stronger, writing edge, which makes it ideal for use on rough timber. A sharp marking knife is used to mark across grain. This cuts the fibres and allows a chisel to sit in the groove to accurately finish cutting a joint. It also prevents a saw tearing the fibres.

Hint: Don't press heavily on the pencil. Lean the pencil in the direction of travel and slightly away from the rule to keep the tip close to the rule.

Measuring rules and the straight edge

Quality steel rules are available in 300, 600 and 1000 mm sizes and, although flexible, may be used on their edge to test for a flat surface. Wooden or plastic folding rules are ideal to avoid carrying a long rule around but a retractable tape measure is far more useful and comes in lengths of two metres or longer. The straight edge is less flexible and is ideal for testing flat surfaces-especially if using its thinner splayed edge. See Figure 1. for these tools.

Try squares

A try square consists of a stock (1) attached to a rectangular high carbon steel blade, generally by rivets. The stock is normally made of a fine, straight-grained and stable timber like beech with a brass rubbing (wear) strip attached to the inner edge (see Fig. 2). A stock can also be plastic or cast iron. The try square is available with blade lengths from 100 to 300 mm, and both the inner and outer edges of the blade may be used. It is an accurate tool and should be treated with care. When using the try square for marking perpendicular lines (squaring), hold the timber against the stock with the thumb, use the index finger to press the blade flat on the timber and the other fingers to push the stock against the timber. Use a sharp 2B pencil or a marking knife to mark the surface depending on what you are marking. When checking with the try square always hold the stock of the square firmly against the timber with the blade just clear of the 90° angle to be checked. While keeping the stock against the timber, slide it towards the angle to be checked by resting it in position rather than pressing it (see Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Correct use of a square

Mitre squares

Mitre squares are made and used just like a try square except that the angle is set at 45° (135° the other end). The most common use for the mitre square is for marking out picture frames. Blade lengths vary from 200 mm to 350 mm.

Builder's square

An L-shaped piece of 3 mm steel 600 mm by 400 mm stamped out and marked in millimetres on all edges with information on angles that are useful to builders. It is excellent for checking and marking out large angles (see Fig. 2).

Sliding bevels

Sliding bevels are for marking and testing angles other than angles that are 90°. The blade can be adjusted in its length and angle; the locking screw is then tightened to hold it in position. Sliding bevels are available in blade lengths from 150 mm to 300 mm (these are ideal for setting out dovetail joints; see Fig. 2).

Combination squares (set) Combination squares consist of a stock of cast iron or alloy with a carbon steel calibrated blade that slides in and is locked to the stock (see Fig. 2). Each side of the stock gives 90° and 45° respectively. A combination square can be used as a depth gauge for rebate joints and as a pencil gauge. The stock generally incorporates a spirit level. High-quality combination square sets also have an internal 90° angled stock that, when operated with the blade, can be used as a centre finder for a circular stock (2). Yet another stock with angular markings is fully adjustable to any angle and is then locked into position.

Figure 2. Measuring, marking and checking tools

Trammel points

These are basically a pair of metal points that can be clamped to a long piece of timber and used as a large pair of dividers. One point normally has a clip to attach a pencil (see Fig. 3).

Dividers and compasses

These tools have an adjustable pair of metal pointed legs that are used to mark or scribe circles and arcs or step off measurements. In larger versions, compasses have a holder that takes either a pencil or chalk (see Fig. 3).

Figure 3. (a) Trammel points, (b) Dividers, (c) A pair of compasses

Pencil or thumb gauges

Made from scrap wood this simple device is used to mark lines of a set size parallel to an edge without leaving a groove; as in marking out chamfers (see Fig. 4).

Profile gauges

This has a row of thin metal pins that are held in position using friction. When pushed against a shape, the profile gauge reproduces that shape which can be traced around to match it (Fig. 5).

Figure 4. Pencil gauge

Winding sticks

A pair of straight pieces of metal or wood (approximately 400 mm long) that are placed across a timber board in order to make it easy to check if the board has any twists (in wind) by sighting along the two sticks to see if they are sitting parallel (see Fig. 5).

Figure 5. Profile gauge

Figure 6. Winding sticks

Marking Gauge

The marking gauge has one fixed sharp spur set in the end of a stem (see Fig. ). This gauge is set to the required measurement by moving the stock along the stem and locking it into position. It marks a line parallel to whatever the gauge is pushed along. It can mark the following: widths, thicknesses, depths of trenches, grooves or recesses and lengths of dovetails.

Hint: When using any gauge, rest the stem of the gauge on the wood you are marking and turn the stem until the spur just bites into the timber and then gently trail the spur either gently away from you or towards you, whichever you prefer. Keeping your hand over the stock gives you a smoother action

Saws

For more than 4000 years, saws have been created to fulfil various needs, as they have arisen. Saws have been designed to cope with many different applications; for example, cutting straight or curved lines, cutting quick rough lines and accurate fine lines, cutting along or across the grain, cutting on the forward stroke or the backward stroke and for special purposes. Modern technology has now produced electrically powered or rechargeable tools that achieve virtually all of these applications, but there is no doubt that the development of good hand skills plays an important part in making a quality woodworker.

Teeth per inch (TPI) is an old imperial expression, which due to the conversion to metric has now changed to teeth per 25 mm (still known as TPI). This refers to the size of the teeth of the saw; basically the larger they are, the rougher but quicker the cut will be. Ripping is sawing along the grain while crosscutting cuts across the grain. The teeth of all saws are bent slightly out in an alternative pattern; this is known as the set of the teeth and prevents the rest of the saw blade from jamming in the cut. The channel made in the timber by the saw teeth is known as the kerf. (see Fig. 1)

Figure 1. The set and kerf. The kerf gives clearance for the blade

Rip saws

A rip saw is a large hand saw, 650 mm to 700 mm long with four TPI. Rip saws have been specifically designed to cut along the grain of wood with teeth that are like small chisels

Figure 2. Rip saw teeth

Crosscut saws

This hand saw is also 650 mm to 700 mm long but with five to seven TPI and a cut designed to first sever the wood fibres on the edge of the kerf before removing the remainder of the kerf. This prevents the wood from tearing when cutting across the grain

Figure 3. Crosscut teeth

Panel saws

The last type of saw from the hand saw group is about 500 to 550 mm long with nine to 12 TPI that are sharpened in a similar fashion to a crosscut saw. Panel saws can be used as a general-purpose saw but are used, more specifically, for cutting manufactured boards without them splintering too much.

Tenon saws

This is a back saw because it has a strip of steel or brass folded over and along the top of the blade to reduce flexing of its thin blade and to add weight to help feed the saw through the wood. It has a 250 to 350 mm long blade with 13 to 15 TPI, and a closed handle. Its uses include general cutting of battens and larger joints along or across the grain (see Fig. 4).

Dovetail saws

A smaller back saw with a blade 150 to 200 mm long and 16 to 22 TPI. Dovetail saws are used for cutting joints, as in cabinet drawers or other fine work (see Fig. 4).

Gent saws and similar

There are lighter weight back saws that use a straight handle like a file handle. These have names like gent saw, bead saw and blitz saw, and produce finer cuts for very fine work and model making because they have 24 to 33 TPI (see Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Back saws

Bow saws

Bow saws are about 300 mm long, with a 6 mm wide blade and eight to 12 TPI. By loosening the tension and turning the handles, the blade may be rotated so the frame of the saw can be moved out of the way of the job. A bow saw is designed to cut curves in quite thick timber and tension is applied to the blade by a tourniquet method at the other side of the frame (see Fig. 5).

Coping and fret saws

A coping saw is a smaller curve-cutting saw (when compared with a bow saw) that is about 150 mm long with 14 to 16 TPI in a narrow blade tensioned in a sprung steel frame. By unscrewing the handle to reduce tension, the blade may be rotated but the size of the frame does not allow this saw to be used very far from the edge. There is a fret saw, which is similar in operation but has a deeper frame and finer, more fragile, teeth (32 TPI) that can cut very tight curves. The coping saw is used on thin timber and manufactured boards. The blade is inserted so that the saw cuts on the back stroke. This keeps the frame under tension and stops the blade from falling out. Blades for these two saws are cheap and are replaced rather than resharpened (see Fig. 5).

Compass, keyhole and pad saws

All of these curve-cutting saws are similar in that they consist of a blade attached to a handle, but with no frame. This allows shapes to be cut in the middle of large boards, after drilling an entry hole. A problem with these saws is that, because they cut on the forward stroke, blades of ten get bent if the saw jams in the wood

Figure 5. A coping saw, fret saws, bow saw and pad saw

Planes

Figure 1. Various kinds of planes

Planes are fitted with a sharpened tool steel blade that is used to gradually reduce a piece of timber to its marked size (see Fig. 1). They are manufactured from either wood or metal and the metal ones are heavier but generally cheaper, due to their mass production. The four most commonly used planes are described in Table 1.

There are various other planes that have been designed to fulfil a variety of purposes. These planes are used more by woodworking specialists and are listed here: router, rebate, plough, shoulder, bull-nosed, combination and compass.

Parts of the plane that adjust

The cap iron is used to stiffen the blade at the cutting edge and its curved part curls the shaving out so it clears the plane. The cap iron should be set approximately 1 mm from the end of the blade (closer if interlocked grain is evident in the wood) and should be bent so as to not allow shavings to wedge between the two parts (see Fig. 2). The lever cap should be fitted and adjusted so that it is tight enough to keep the blade in position once it is adjusted (see Fig. 2). The frog can be adjusted slightly to reduce the gap between the blade and the mouth; this reduces the risk of tearing the fibres of difficult timbers and timbers with a wavy grain (see Fig. 2).

Lateral adjustment is achieved by gently moving the lever situated at the top of the plane either left or right (not on the block plane) (see Fig. 2). Lateral adjustment can be checked and changed by holding the plane upside down, by the front knob, and looking along the soleplate against a light background (see Fig. 2).

Adjustments to the depth of the cut are achieved by simply rotating the brass knob (nut), which pushes the blade in or out. As with lateral adjustment, the best way to hold the plane is to turn it upside down and hold it by the front knob, and the best way to check adjustments is to look along the soleplate against a light background (see Fig. 2).

HINT: The best way for a beginner to adjust the cut is to first ensure the blade is level (lateral) then adjust the blade back until it just disappears inside the soleplate. Try to plane a shaving; if it takes a shaving then adjust the blade back further until it will not work. Now the blade may be wound forward a quarter of a turn at a time and tested with a shaving until the desired thickness is achieved. Now turn it over and look at the blade to see and remember how much it protrudes.

Using planes

When using planes, stance is important. Stand in a relaxed position, feet apart, shoulders bent slightly forward, and your right hand and arm behind the plane and in line with it so that, working from the shoulder, then push the plane along. The left hand (right hand if you are lefthanded) controls the toe, or front part, of the plane. When taking a shaving, initially, most of the weight of the plane is off the wood so more downward pressure must be applied to the front handle. Towards the end of the stroke the opposite occurs and most of the plane is off the front of the wood so the downward pressure must be transferred to the rear handle of the plane to stop the plane dropping and rounding off the end of the wood.

To help you make a straight cut, keep the sides of the plane parallel with the length of the wood, except when planing end grain or timber with wavy or knotty grain. End grain is difficult to work with so it is worth explaining why this is the case. The fibres that make up the grain/structure of wood can be likened to a large, magnified bunch of straws, with the end of the straws representing the end grain. If you hold the bunch of straws in one hand and brush your other hand across the ends, the last few that are brushed against will bend out. This is exactly what happens to the end grain fibres of wood if an attempt is made to plane across them because the last few fibres are not supported by others in front. Knowing this means we can apply one of the following methods to stop this happening.

For a good result, each of the methods that follows requires a sharp, finely set smoothing plane and possibly a little wax to reduce friction. Moving the plane on the skew rather than presenting the plane and blade square-on produces an easier slicing action .

If the end grain is part of an assembled and glued joint then simply flushing off by planing towards the joined piece of wood will supply the support necessary to prevent splintering.

Different plane types

Table 1. Common types of planes

Figure 2. A segmented view of a plane with the various parts labelled accordingly

If the wood is not assembled, there are a number of methods that can be employed. However, for all of these methods, the first step is to ensure that the wood has been cut as close as possible to the marked line, to reduce the amount of planing necessary.

One of these methods is to gently plane or file a chamfer at one end of the end grain, right to the marked line, then plane from the other end, constantly checking the marked line. Planing into the middle from each end is a safe method. Just remember to check with a straight edge or try square for a high spot in the middle.

Another method is to clamp a sacrificial piece of wood at one end and plane towards it. The unsupported scrap piece will splinter but will protect the main piece.

Finally, if the piece of end grain is small enough it can be squared to the marked line by disc sanding followed by sanding.

NOTE: If the plane chatters it is probably set with too much blade protruding. A wipe of wax on the soleplate will reduce friction, making the planing process much easier.

Work held in the vice should be kept parallel to the top of the bench: if it is raised at one end, the plane will tend to take more off the higher part. Aim to take a shaving off the full length of the timber where possible, but finish long work to a smoother surface with fewer plane marks by beginning at the forward end and working back.

See that the cutting iron (blade), which must be kept sharp, protrudes an even distance beyond the plane face or it will take a deeper shaving at one corner, producing an uneven surface. You can begin planing sawn timber with a fairly deep cut, reducing the depth of cut, and hence the thickness of the shavings, as you approach the marked line.

Hint: A light rubbing of any hard wax on the soleplate of the plane will reduce friction and make it much easier to use.

Safety: Never run your finger along or across a blade to test for sharpness. When putting down a plane lay it gently (to prevent upsetting the adjustment) on its side (to prevent damage to the blade and bench).

Cabinet and hand scrapers

Generally made of carbon steel and available in various curved (convex and concave) or rectangular shapes, the scraper uses thicknesses that vary from 0.4 mm for very fine work to 1.5 mm for heavy-duty work. The cutting action results from a burr (2) formed on the edge of the scraper that acts like a mini plane. Cabinet scrapers are held in a cast-iron frame, are made adjustable and ground to 45° before producing the burr. The hand scraper is ground to 90°; the burr is produced and is then used by hand. They work very well, when sharpened correctly, and can produce a fine surface that needs very little sanding (see Figs. 4, 5 and 6).

Figure 3. A spokeshave

Figure 4. Magnified view of the effect of a sharp hand scraper

Figure 5. Hand scraper for curved work

Figure 6. Push the scraper at a skewed angle when starting near an end and change the angle with each stroke

Chisels

Chisels have to be strongly made so that when they are hit with a mallet the tang of the blade doesn't split the handle. There are two styles of construction to prevent this from happening. The first style consists of a hollow, tapering socket at the upper end of the blade. The other type has a tang followed by a flat lip against which a ferrule, on the end of the handle, rests. A leather washer is positioned over the tang to absorb the shock of the mallet's blows. Metal ferrules are sometimes placed around the end of the wooden handle that is hit to prevent the mallet splitting it. Ferrules and washers are not required with quality plastic handles. The size of the blade ranges from 3 to 51 mm wide and 75 to 250 mm long, depending upon use and preference.

As with all edge tools, a keen cutting edge is essential for clean work with the chisel. For removing waste from a trench or groove, clamp the work and hold the chisel handle in the palm of your left hand, ground side downwards, while the right hand taps the end of the handle with the mallet. For mortising, clamp the work and stand behind it so that the chisel can be held vertically and struck squarely on the end with the mallet.

For paring, hold the work in a vice or clamp it to a bench, leaving the right hand (if you are righthanded) free to grip the handle and exert the pressure while the left hand steadies and holds the blade, which is held with the flat side towards the wood.

To the expert craftsperson, accuracy with a plane, saw or chisel means making the cut precisely where it should go, even to the extent of cutting exactly through the centre of a gauge line or leaving a pencil line just showing on the edge of the cut. Remember that this degree of skill comes only with practice.

Safety: Never place either one of your hands in front of the chisel or work a chisel towards your body. Always carry a chisel with your hand near the sharp tip so you are aware of its location and have your arm by your side.

For information about sharpening chisels - see the section on Maintenance and care of tools below

Figure 1. Parts of a chisel

Types of chisels

Firmer chisels

These are general-purpose chisels with a rectangular-sectioned blade, for strength, that can be used with a mallet. Firmer chisels are mainly used to remove waste wood in joint construction (see Fig. 1).

Mortise chisels

This chisel is similar to the firmer chisel but is considerably thicker (not wider). This allows it to be used for making mortise joints, which require considerably more hitting and levering. A register chisel is a little thinner but stronger than the firmer and may also be used to produce mortises (see Fig. 1).

Bevelled-edge firmer chisel

As the name suggests, the two long edges of this chisel are bevelled (see Fig. 1 & 2). This chisel works best for lighter work and it may be used to clean up a dovetail joint as it has sides less than 90°. It can also be used for paring. A longer version of a bevelled-edge firmer is a paring chisel, which is used to clean up and finish joints without the use of a mallet.

Safety: All chisels and gouges should be carried carefully and held by your side with the hand grip near to the sharp end so that you know where it is.

Figure 2. Chisel types

Figure 3. Vertical paring

Figure 4. Horizontal paring

Hammers and Mallets

Screwdrivers

Files

Vices and clamps

Maintenance and care of tools

How to Sharpen Plane Irons, Spokeshave Blades, Chisels and Gouges

Grind edge on grindstone or emery wheel only if badly gapped, out of square, or rounded from frequent sharpening. If using abrasive wheel, dip tool in water frequently to avoid overheating, which will draw temper of metal and soften the cutting edge. An appropriate angle is 20 to 25 degrees. Re-shape edge if necessary (Fig. 1).
Grind the bevel to the required angle, moving it from side to side across wheel so as to make an even cut (Fig. 1).
Now hone blade on oilstone, using correct type of oil to reduce friction and float out metal particles. Holding blade bevel-side-down at an angle of 25 to 30 degrees (Fig. 2), rub it over stone with circular or figure-8 motion maintaining same angle throughout (Fig. 2).
Hone till burr, or wire edge, is obtained.
Remove burr by drawing edge across end grain of a piece of hard wood. (See Fig. 3)
With burr completely removed, tool is ready for final honing to very fine, sharp edge. Stroke blade very lightly over fine stone, using circular or figure-8 movements. (See Fig. 4)
Reverse blade occasionally and lightly stroke face, holding it perfectly flat. (See Fig. 5)

Figure 1. Grinding badly gapped chisel on grinding wheel

Figure 2. Hone till burr or wire edge is obtained

Figure 3. Remove burr by drawing across end of hard wood

Figure 4. Use fine stone and hone to keen edge.

Figure 5. Reverse blade occasionally and lightly stroke face while holding perfectly flat

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