Erich Fromm
(1900 - 1980)
Created: January 2021. Substantial Revision: Jan 11, 2025.
Erich Fromm, a prominent psychoanalyst and social philosopher, was born in 1900 in Frankfurt, Germany. His early life, marked by a somewhat tumultuous family environment—his father described as "moody" and his mother as often depressed—laid the groundwork for his later explorations into the human psyche. While specific statistics on childhood depression during that era are scarce, it's known that mental health issues were often stigmatized and underreported. Fromm's upbringing in a devout Orthodox Jewish household also profoundly influenced his intellectual journey, eventually leading him to what he termed "atheistic mysticism."
Two pivotal events during Fromm's adolescence profoundly shaped his worldview. The first involved the tragic suicide of a young female artist, a friend of the family, who took her own life shortly after her father's death. In his autobiography, Beyond the Chains of Illusion, Fromm poignantly recounts this incident:
"Maybe she was 25 years of age; she was beautiful, attractive, and in addition a painter, the first painter I ever knew... Then one day I heard the shocking news: her father had died, and immediately afterwards, she had killed herself and left a will which stipulated that she wanted to be buried with her father." (p. 4)
This event left a 12-year-old Fromm grappling with existential questions, the answers to which he initially sought in the works of Freud. Suicide rates in Germany during the early 20th century were relatively high compared to other European nations, and while the motivations behind each case are complex, Fromm began to link such tragedies to deeper psychological and societal factors.
The second, more expansive event was the outbreak of World War I. Witnessing the fervor of nationalism at the age of 14, Fromm was deeply disturbed by the irrationality of mass behavior and the dehumanizing rhetoric of war. He later reflected on the "war hysteria" that gripped Germany, noting the pervasive message: "We (Germans, or more precisely, Christian Germans) are great; They (the English and their allies) are cheap mercenaries." This experience drove him to seek understanding in the writings of Karl Marx. World War I resulted in an estimated 20 million deaths, with millions more wounded or displaced. The psychological toll on the civilian population, particularly in Germany, which faced defeat and economic hardship, was immense.
Fromm's academic pursuits led him to a Ph.D. from Heidelberg in 1922, followed by a career as a psychotherapist. The rise of Nazism prompted his emigration to the United States in 1934, where he joined a vibrant intellectual community in New York City. This period saw him engaging with other prominent thinkers, including Karen Horney, with whom he shared both intellectual and personal connections. He later moved to Mexico City, conducting research on the interplay between economic class and personality. He died in Switzerland in 1980.
Fromm's theoretical framework uniquely blends Freudian psychoanalysis with Marxist social theory. While Freud emphasized unconscious drives and biological determinism, positing that "our characters were determined by biology," Marx focused on socio-economic structures as the primary determinants of human behavior. Fromm, however, introduced a radical element into this deterministic mix: the concept of freedom. He argued that humans possess the capacity to transcend the determinisms proposed by Freud and Marx, making freedom the defining characteristic of human nature.
Fromm illustrated this with examples. Animals, driven by instinct, exemplify biological determinism. As he quipped, "Woodchucks... don't need career counseling... They are going to be woodchucks!" Similarly, the rigid social hierarchy of the Middle Ages, where one's role was largely predetermined by birth, demonstrated socio-economic determinism. However, with the advent of the Renaissance, Reformation, democratic revolutions, and the Industrial Revolution, the concept of the individual—with individual thoughts, feelings, and responsibilities—emerged.
This newfound freedom, however, brought with it isolation and anxiety. Fromm identified three primary mechanisms through which individuals attempt to escape the burdens of freedom:
Authoritarianism: This involves merging oneself with an authoritarian system, either by submitting to the power of others (masochism) or by exerting control over others (sadism). In both cases, individual identity is subsumed within a larger structure. Fromm noted that this dynamic is not limited to extreme cases but is prevalent in everyday power relations, such as those between students and professors.
Destructiveness: Faced with a painful existence, some individuals seek to destroy the source of their pain, whether it be the external world or themselves. This can manifest in various forms, from violence and vandalism to self-destructive behaviors like substance abuse and suicide. Fromm viewed self-destructiveness as "frustrated destructiveness," a reversal of Freud's death instinct.
Automaton Conformity: In societies that emphasize equality and individual freedom, individuals may seek refuge in mass culture, adopting the behaviors, beliefs, and values of the majority to avoid the anxiety of individual choice. This "social chameleon" loses their unique identity in the pursuit of conformity. Fromm observed a split between the conformist's genuine feelings and their outward persona, similar to Horney's concept of the idealized self.
Fromm asserted that any escape from freedom ultimately alienates us from our true nature. He wrote:
"Man is born as a freak of nature, being within nature and yet transcending it... He has to fight not only against the dangers of dying, starving, and being hurt, but also against another anger which is specifically human: that of becoming insane." (Fromm, 1968, p. 61)
Fromm believed that the family environment plays a crucial role in shaping an individual's approach to freedom. He described two types of "unproductive" families:
Symbiotic Families: In these families, certain members are "swallowed up" by others, preventing the development of independent personalities. This can occur when a parent dominates a child or vice-versa. In many traditional societies, hierarchical structures necessitate a degree of both dominance and submission, embedding the authoritarian escape from freedom within the social fabric. In such societies, the rates of individualism are much lower. For instance, a study in the 1980s by Geert Hofstede on cultural dimensions found that many Asian and Latin American countries scored significantly lower on individualism compared to Western countries.
Withdrawing Families: These families are characterized by emotional detachment and a lack of genuine connection. The "cold" version, prevalent in certain historical periods and cultures, emphasizes strict discipline and high standards, often leading to internalized destructiveness and perfectionism. The "modern" version, marked by an emphasis on equality and emotional control, can result in a lack of guidance and a tendency toward automaton conformity. For example, studies show that families with emotionally distant parenting styles are associated with higher rates of anxiety and depression in children. A 2014 study published in the journal Development and Psychopathology found that children of emotionally detached parents were more likely to develop internalizing problems.
Fromm argued that these family dynamics are reflections of broader societal and cultural norms, which are absorbed unconsciously from a young age—the "social unconscious." He emphasized the importance of examining economic systems to understand this unconscious, outlining five personality types, or "orientations," based on economic terms:
Receptive: Individuals who passively expect to have their needs met by external sources. Common among peasant populations and those in resource-rich environments, as well as marginalized groups.
Exploitative: Individuals who actively seek to take what they need from others. Prevalent among historical aristocracies and colonial powers.
Hoarding: Individuals who focus on accumulating and preserving possessions, including relationships. Associated with the bourgeoisie and the Protestant work ethic.
Marketing: Individuals who view themselves as commodities to be marketed and sold. Success is defined by self-promotion and adaptability. This is the dominant orientation in modern industrial society, where image and presentation are paramount.
Productive: The healthy personality type, characterized by an embrace of freedom and responsibility, grounded in love and reason.
Fromm associated the first four orientations with a "having mode" of existence, focused on consumption and possession, while the productive orientation embodies a "being mode," defined by authentic experience and genuine connection.
Fromm's exploration of evil led him to identify a "necrophilous" type—individuals drawn to death, decay, and destruction. He speculated on the origins of this orientation, suggesting possible genetic factors, early experiences of frustration and rage, or the influence of a necrophilous upbringing. He used people such as Hitler as an example. He also believed that all humans have fundamental needs beyond basic survival, which he termed "human needs." These include the need for relatedness, creativity, rootedness, a sense of identity, and a frame of orientation. He argued that cultures, like religions, serve to address these needs, providing meaning and structure to human existence.
Fromm's work serves as a vital bridge between psychoanalytic and humanistic theories, incorporating elements of both Freudian and Neo-Freudian thought while anticipating the rise of existential psychology. His emphasis on the socio-economic roots of personality, though associated with Marxism, remains a crucial, yet often underrepresented, perspective in understanding human behavior.