Enlightenment philosophy, emerging in the 17th and 18th centuries, profoundly influenced the development of modern social theory. It was during the Enlightenment period that foundational concepts such as individual rights, democracy, secularism, reason, and scientific progress became central in the intellectual landscape. This period is also known as the "Age of Reason" due to its emphasis on rationality and scientific method as ways to understand and shape the world.
The Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Locke, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, and others, aimed to free human beings from what they perceived as traditional authorities, be it church, monarchy, or old customs and superstitions. They believed in the power of human reason to understand, control, and improve the world. They also advanced the concepts of human autonomy, freedom, and equality, proposing that every individual had certain natural or inalienable rights.
As a social theory, Enlightenment philosophy has the following features:
Individualism: Enlightenment thinkers placed a significant emphasis on the individual and their rights. They proposed that each person should have the freedom to pursue their own desires and aspirations, as long as they do not infringe on the rights of others. This focus on individualism laid the groundwork for liberal democratic theory and underpins modern concepts of human rights.
Rationalism and Empiricism: Enlightenment philosophy is fundamentally based on reason, logic, and empirical evidence. It rejects the notion of accepting traditional authorities without questioning and promotes the use of scientific methods to understand and shape society. This is the basis of modern sociology and social science, which use empirical research and rational analysis to understand social phenomena.
Secularism: Enlightenment thinkers argued for the separation of church and state and promoted religious tolerance. This secularist perspective is foundational to many modern social theories, which view religion as one aspect of culture rather than a universally applicable moral system.
Progress and Optimism: Enlightenment philosophy is imbued with a belief in human progress, a faith that reason and science could lead to improvements in society. This idea of progress is central to many contemporary social theories and ideologies, such as development theory and liberal democracy.
The consequences of Enlightenment thinking for social theories are profound. Here are a few key impacts:
Development of Social Sciences: The emphasis on empirical evidence and rational analysis contributed to the development of social sciences such as sociology, anthropology, political science, and economics. These disciplines strive to scientifically understand and predict social phenomena, much like natural sciences do for natural phenomena.
Democratic Theory and Practice: The Enlightenment ideas of individual rights, equality, and popular sovereignty are foundational to democratic theory. They contributed to the rise of democratic systems of governance and continue to shape debates around governance and political rights.
Human Rights: The concept of universal human rights is a direct consequence of Enlightenment philosophy. The idea that all individuals are entitled to certain rights simply because they are human is now a central tenet of international law and is incorporated into the constitutions of many countries.
Critical Thinking: Enlightenment thinking encourages skepticism towards traditional authorities and promotes questioning, debate, and dissent. This has resulted in a society that values critical thinking and encourages scrutiny of social norms and structures.
However, it's important to note that Enlightenment thinking has also been criticized. Critics argue that its emphasis on reason and individualism can lead to an erosion of community and collective identities, and that its universalistic claims can be used to justify cultural imperialism. Despite these critiques, the influence of Enlightenment philosophy on social theory is undeniable and continues to shape our world today.
Immanuel Kant: What is Enlightenment (written 1784)
Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-imposed immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one's understanding without guidance from another. This immaturity is self-imposed when its cause lies not in lack of understanding, but in lack of resolve and courage to use it without guidance from another. Sapere Aude! [dare to know] "Have courage to use your own understanding!"—that is the motto of enlightenment.
Laziness and cowardice are the reasons why so great a proportion of men, long after nature has released them from alien guidance (naturaliter maiorennes), nonetheless gladly remain in lifelong immaturity, and why it is so easy for others to establish themselves as their guardians. It is so easy to be immature. If I have a book to serve as my understanding, a pastor to serve as my conscience, a physician to determine my diet for me, and so on, I need not exert myself at all.
I need not think, if only I can pay: others will readily undertake the irksome work for me. The guardians who have so benevolently taken over the supervision of men have carefully seen to it that the far greatest part of them (including the entire fair sex) regard taking the step to maturity as very dangerous, not to mention difficult.
Political and economic systems emerge that are based on basic values of reason and freedom.
Bureaucracies are applied forms of rationality. Nation States hold a monopoly of power. State constitutions are based on Enlightenment ideas (separation of state and religion, equality, non-discrimination, separation of powers, federalism, etc)
Government Models: polticial expression is allowed, parties and lobbies can organize, representative democracies operate through parliaments and elections. (But what about republics and federal systems, like the US, Europe?)
Capitalism is based on the idea of market economies, producers and consumers have rights to act in their own interests. Does this produce a just distribution of goods and services?
International organizations are weak. There should be international rule of law, and universal human rights, but violations are massive and the system seems to exist only as ideology.
Very large political systems and blocks are emerging and people loose faith in adequate political representation that works for them.
Does the political and economic order in the early 21st century work for us?