Early LGBTQ+ History

The history of the LGBTQ+ people is a story of struggle, resilience, and community. LGBTQ+ people have existed throughout history in various cultures around the world. Prior to the beginning of the modern LGBTQ+ liberation movement, detailed below, there were several organizations in Europe and the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that sought to connect LGBTQ+ communities and advocate on their behalf. 

During the French Revolution, the revolutionary government abolished sodomy. The decriminalization of same-sex relationships enabled Paris to emerge as the queer capital of Europe in the late 18th and 19th centuries. By the late 19th century, Paris had become a destination for gay and gender nonconforming expatriates, including the famous author Oscar Wilde, who spent his final years in the city. [1] Paris hosted a robust gay night life, and dressing in drag was often part of mainstream celebrations and festivals during the early 20th century. 

Prior to the Nationalist Socialist takeover of the German government in the early 1930s, Berlin was the center of early 20th century LGBTQ+ thought and culture. Physician and sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld co-founded the Institute of Sex Research (Institut für Sexualwissenschaft) in 1919, revolutionizing the relatively new field of sexology. [2] The Institute pioneered research on same-sex relationships and gender nonconforming identities, arguing that these relationships and identities should be socially and legally accepted. Under the Third Reich, the Institute was closed and their archives burned in 1933 in one of the Nazi’s first organized book burnings. The Third Reich’s occupation of France squashed the vibrant LGBTQ+ culture in Paris, as well. 

The 1920s also proved to be a time of sexual progressiveness in the United States. In 1924, Henry Gerber founded the Society for Human Rights, the United States’ first gay rights organization. [3] Gerber was inspired by activists in Germany and sought to bring social acceptance of same-sex relationships and gender nonconforming identities to Chicago. Although the Society was initially allowed to operate, Gerber and his associates were arrested in 1925, and the Society withered away soon after. 

The Great Depression and the Second World War led to the restriction on society’s acceptance of same-sex and gender nonconforming identities in the United States, just as it did across Western Europe. Early American colonizers created the first sodomy laws as early as 1714 to prevent nonprocreative sex. [4] However, it wasn’t until after World War II that these laws began being used explicitly to persecute same-sex behaviors. 

Following World War II, a phenomenon called the “Lavender Scare” took place in the United States. The Lavender Scare was a moral panic around same-sex and gender nonconforming identities and behaviors. The proponents of the Lavender Scare often associated queer identities with communism. [5] During the Lavender Scare, suspected gay men and lesbians were ousted from state employment due to their supposed communist ties. In 1953, President Eisenhower signed an executive order to bar “homosexuals” from working within the federal government. This order was used to dismiss no less than 5 thousand individuals from their positions. [6]

However, historians have made the case that this highly repressive period of American history helped give rise to the modern LGBTQ+ liberation movement. The first sustained organizations to advocate for same-sex and gender nonconforming identities formed in response to the Lavender Scare. The Homophile movement, which started in San Francisco in the late 1950s, was the most significant of these organizations. [7] By the mid-1960s, there were homophile organizations in San Francisco, New York City, Washington, D.C., and Philadelphia. 

The Stonewall Riots

The Stonewall Uprising, which began in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969, was a response to targeted police brutality against New York’s LGBTQ+ community, in this instance at a Greenwich Village bar called the Stonewall Inn. The abuse that triggered the Stonewall Uprising was not the first instance of a targeted police raid on a gay bar, nor of LGBTQ+ resistance in response. Yet, Stonewall marked a significant shift in discourse and activism. Protests took place across New York City for six days. During these days, LGBTQ+ individuals expressed their outrage over the continued homophobic abuse of the NYPD, which came to a head at the Stonewall Inn. 

The Stonewall Uprising brought national (and then international) attention to the abuses in LGBTQ+ human rights. One year after the initial Uprising, in 1970, Pride marches took place in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and other cities to keep up the momentum of the movement that had started at the Stonewall Inn. Pride marches, and later Pride parades and festivals, were a direct result of the Stonewall Uprising. 

Many BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, People of Color) individuals were among those that took part in the Stonewall Protests, including Marsha P. Johnson, a black trans woman who has been credited as the one who “threw the first brick” that ignited the Uprising. However, historians note that the activism that followed Stonewall primarily benefited white cisgender individuals, leaving out queer BIPOC and gender nonconforming individuals. Stonewall veterans prefer the terms "uprising" or "rebellion" over "riots," as the latter was used by police to justify their actions. [4]

The Stonewall Uprising sparked a new wave of activism and led to the formation of many LGBTQ+ rights organizations. In the following decades, LGBTQ+ people continued to organize and advocate for their rights. This included efforts to challenge discriminatory laws and attitudes, fight for legal recognition of same-sex relationships, and push for protections against discrimination in housing, employment, and other areas. [5]

AIDS Epidemic

While the AIDS Epidemic remains a dark period of LGBTQ+ history, it is nonetheless a fundamental part of the story. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) causes the weakening of the immune system, allowing opportunistic infections to develop in those who have the disease. First diagnosed in 1981, it was already devastating the LGBTQ+ community. At the time, those with AIDS did not often survive it, as the disease quickly destroyed the immune system’s ability to fight off infections. 

Originally the disease was named the “Gay Men’s Pneumonia” or as “gay-related immune deficiency” (GRID), as medical professionals first observed the disease primarily in gay and bisexual men. It was renamed Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) in 1982, but many still believed AIDS was exclusive to the LGBTQ+ community. The federal government was slow to publicly acknowledge the disease, nor to admit that it was turning into an epidemic. The first funding dedicated to AIDS research and treatment was approved by Congress in July 1983. By the mid-1980s, medical professionals agreed that gay men, people who injected drugs intravenously, and those exposed to infected blood were “at-risk” populations for the disease. The disease was transmitted through sexual contact or through infected blood (typically through needle or blood infusion). [6]

Early into the epidemic, the LGBTQ+ community responded by raising funds for research, spreading awareness with their newspapers and newsletters, and created organizations to provide services to those in need. Of note was the Gay Men’s Health Crisis (GMHC), founded in 1982 as the first community-based AIDS service provider in the United States. Early activists include Larry Kramer, Bobbi Campbell, and Clive Jones. People mourned those lost to AIDS through Candlelight Vigils in 1983 in San Franciso and New York. This marked the first public demonstration of those living with AIDS. The AIDS Memorial Quilt, which debuted in 1987, honored those who died of an AIDS-related illnesses. The Quilt was another way the LGBTQ+ community spread awareness about the disease. Another important organization was the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT UP), which was formed in 1987 by Larry Kramer and performed acts of civil disobedience to garner attention to the AIDS Crisis. The AIDS Epidemic had a profound and lasting impact on the LGBTQ+ community. [7]

Recent Milestones of the LGTBQ+ Community

Important 21st century milestones in LGBTQ+ history include the decriminalization of homosexuality, the legalization of same-sex marriage in America in 2015 through the Obergefell v. Hodges Supreme Court decision, and the passage of laws protecting LGBTQ+ individuals from discrimination at the federal, state, and municipal levels. However, progress has not been linear, and LGBTQ+ people still face challenges such as violence, discrimination, and lack of acceptance in some communities.

Despite these challenges, LGBTQ+ individuals and allies continue to work toward a more inclusive and equal society. Pride celebrations, which commemorate the LGBTQ+ rights movement and celebrate LGBTQ+ identity, are held around the world each year. These events serve as a reminder of how far LGBTQ+ rights have come and the work that still needs to be done to achieve full equality for all.

The LGBTQ+ community in Central Ohio has a rich history of vibrant events and activism. The Berwik Ball, starting in the late 1960s, and the Red Party in the 1970s provided unique spaces for LGBTQ+ individuals. The gay student group at The Ohio State University pioneered LGBTQ+ student activism in the city, organizing the first gay rights rally in central Ohio. Notably, the gay student group, the Gay Activist Alliance was founded in Columbus. [18]

Established in 1971 but initially denied official university recognition, the OSU Gay Liberation Front, later renamed the Gay Activists Alliance at The Ohio State University (OSU), gained approval and office space in 1973 under a new college administration. Throughout the years, the organization evolved, creating a speaker's bureau in 1974 and sponsoring the first gay rights rally in central Ohio in 1976. Renamed as the Gay Alliance in 1978 and later the Gay and Lesbian Alliance in 1985, the group continued to expand its activities, hosting events like the "Gay Student Orientation" in 1980 and Ohio State's first "Coming Out Day" in 1989. Despite several name changes and the introduction of additional LGBTQ+ groups, LGBTQ+ Pride at OSU has remained a constant presence for nearly five decades. [19]

The LGBTQ+ community in Columbus has been making its presence known for over 50 years. The community has held events, raised funds, and spread awareness on critical issues facing the community. Stonewall Union's presence at the Ohio State Fair highlighted LGBTQ+ representation. [20] Founded in 1981, the Stonewall Union was formed with the mission of “increasing the visibility and acceptance of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) community.” [21] The founders of Stonewall Union, now known as Stonewall Columbus, were Craig Covey, Steve Wilson, Rick Rommele, Craig Huffman, Dennis Valot, Val Thogmartin, and Keith McKnight. By the mid-1980s, Stonewall Union had established the LGBTQ+ annual resources directory Lavendar Listings and the Stonewall Journal, the longest running LGBTQ+ newspaper in the city at the time. [22] Additionally, events like Bat-N-Rouge, Art for Life (to benefit HIV/AIDS community care), the Dr. Robert J. Fass AIDS Walk, Camp Sunrise, and the International Drag King Extravaganza further enriched the community. [23]

While many advancements in community life were occurring during this time, the Columbus LGBTQ+ community was not without obstacles. The 1980s HIV/AIDS epidemic devastated the Columbus community as it did LGBTQ+ communities across the country. The community responded to the challenges with the establishment of Columbus chapter of ACT UP. ACT UP Columbus held various public events to raise awareness about the disease. One such event was the 1991 protest outside of The Columbus Dispatch offices to push for more media coverage on AIDS. Activists called this protest the “Day of Desperation.” 

HIV/AIDS worsened the discrimination the LGBTQ+ community was facing. [24] People learned throughout the 1980s and early 90s that HIV/AIDS also affected heterosexual individuals. Yet, many were uneducated about how the infection was transmitted, and simply chose to believe distancing themselves from LGBTQ+ individuals would protect them. LGBTQ+ individuals regularly found themselves facing discrimination in housing, public accommodations, and employment. Bar raids plagued the community during the late 1990s, an afront that was through to be a problem of the past. Like LGBTQ+ communities everywhere, the Columbus community has faced violence against LGBTQ+ individuals, particularly LGBTQ+ people of color, throughout its history, and even still today.

In 1998, Columbus became Ohio's first city to grant domestic partner benefits to LGBTQ+ couples, a groundbreaking move during the early stages of the national marriage equality discussions. The passing of domestic partner benefits was not without its opponents. Baptist minister Rev. Fred Marshall claimed at a public debate the measure was, “promoting humanity’s sinful sexual sensual nature,” and that, “we should be as obedient to God as our dogs are to us.” Various groups opposing the benefits threatened to challenge the domestic partnership benefits in a voter referendum. If the benefits ended up on the voter referendum, the rights of a minority (the LGBTQ+ community) would be at the mercy of a majority vote. The Columbus City Council, fearing the potential negative outcome, gave into the opponents and repealed the benefits for domestic partnerships. [25] 

The LGBTQ+ community in Columbus is characterized by resilience and activism. Despite setbacks, Columbus LGBTQ+ life reflects a community continually striving for progress and inclusion. [26]

Cleveland’s gay community dates to the 1960s with the founding of a local Mattachine Society group. The Mattachine Society laid the groundwork for modern LGBTQ+ organizations and helped shape what would become the gay rights movement following the Stonewall Riot in 1969. [8] Overall, in the 1970s, the Cleveland city government and police were tolerant towards the LGBTQ+ community. Despite occasional issues like targeted parking violations and sporadic raids at gay establishments, there wasn't widespread persecution as seen in other cities like New York City before the Stonewall riots. [9] 

In the 1970s, Cleveland Heights took steps to update its employment non-discrimination laws. With guidance from Dignity Cleveland on federal service rulings, and support from the Cleveland Gay Political Union, the city included sexual orientation as a protected class in January 1976, making it the second municipality in Ohio to do so after Yellow Springs. [10]

Cleveland’s LGBTQ+ community, like all LGBTQ+ communities, boasts a long history of activism and protest for the rights of LGBTQ+ individuals. In 1975, members of the Cleveland Gay Political Union (CGPU) picketed the Cleveland Plain Dealer for using "homosexual" instead of "gay" and "lesbian”, arguing that the term “homosexual” pathologized queer people. The following year, over 30 individuals protested outside the Cleveland Press offices for censoring a Doonesbury comic featuring a gay character. Their activism led to the comic's publication after public demand. Leon Stevens, co-editor of High Gear (Ohio’s Gay Journal), commented regarding the protest, “We’re out here to show the public that we will no longer tolerate being ignored…We have a press, our own entertainment centers and a culture as valid as any other. It’s time this area recognized us.” Following the Supreme Court's 1976 ruling allowing states to prosecute consensual same-sex acts, the Cleveland Gay Political Union (CGPU) swiftly reacted, denouncing the decision and advocating for equal treatment. CGPU representatives appeared on various television programs, including "In My Opinion" on WEWS-TV and Kamm's Corner on WVIZ-TV, to voice their opposition and demand justice. [11]

In July 1972, the first Gay Pride March in Cleveland was organized by the Gay Activists Alliance, with over 70 people participating. Between 1972 and 1976, advocates organized protests and other actions, but the third Gay Pride March/Celebration didn't happen until July 1976. [12] With minimal publicity, Dan Richmond, newly appointed worship coordinator of the Cleveland Metropolitan Community Church, led the march. In 1977, Cleveland experienced two Gay Pride Marches due to a lack of coordination. The first, on June 25th, was organized by the Cleveland Gay Political Union and the Gay Caucus of Youth Against War and Fascism. Despite facing permit issues and marching on city sidewalks, 225 attendees participated. The second march, on July 9th, was sponsored by the Cleveland Metropolitan Community Church. Despite being smaller, both marches received ample media coverage. All three local TV news channels and both newspapers covered the events. The Cleveland Press even published an editorial in support of gay rights, while Jane Scott of The Plain Dealer published a series of articles on "gay lifestyles." Additionally, WGAR radio aired hourly vignettes on issues facing gay individuals during a Stonewall Commemoration weekend. [13]

The Gay Education Awareness and Resources (GEAR) Foundation sponsored the fifth Gay Pride March/Celebration on June 25th, 1978. In the 1970s, Cleveland’s Gay Pride Marches were relatively peaceful, despite the harassment of religious extremists. These marches were political and about fighting for the visibility of the LGBTQ+ community. Despite facing harassment and stigma, gay individuals bravely participated, risking job loss and familial rejection. Their courage left a lasting impact on the community. [14]

In the 1980s, the AIDS Epidemic affected all gay communities including Cleveland. In response to the AIDS epidemic, the gay community established the Health Issues Task Force in 1982. Initially focused on AIDS education and services, the organization expanded over the years, eventually becoming the AIDS Task Force of Greater Cleveland in 1994. With this renaming, the organization evolved into a major social service agency. It is Ohio's oldest AIDS-serving nonprofit. Originally addressing health issues for the LGBTQ+ community, it shifted focus solely to AIDS in 1984. The organization offers a range of services including case management, medical referrals, and legal aid. It expanded its outreach to African American, Latino, and women's communities over the years. It went on to include transportation assistance and support groups in the late 1990s. [15]

ACT UP Cleveland, founded in 1990, aimed to enhance the lives of people with AIDS through policy influence, direct action, and funding medical research. Led by Joe Carroccio until 2003, it engaged in rallies, protests, and distributing clean syringes to prevent HIV transmission. In 1994, a rally drew attention from city officials. The following year, a protest outside City Hall criticized local legislators for neglecting the AIDS crisis. [16]

Since 1997, Black Gay Pride has been an official annual celebration of Pride in Cleveland's Black LGBTQ+ community. Formed by Jasper Slaughter, Melvin Foote, and Sharon Young in 1996, it aims to address the specific needs of people of color often overlooked by mainstream LGBTQ+ organizations. Black Gay Pride advocates for visibility, support, services, awareness, and inclusion. Despite challenges in the conservative 1990s, the gay community grew, impacting various aspects of city life. While no specific gay area emerged, concentrations were noted in Cleveland Heights, Shaker Square, Ohio City, and Lakewood, with gay establishments mainly downtown and to the west. [17]

The LGBTQ+ community in Cincinnati is distinct from other cities like Cleveland or Columbus, as the city of Cincinnati was historically somewhat more conservative and slower to embrace change in LGBTQ+ issues. [27] The LGBTQ+ community has had a presence in the city since the 1920s. 

Patrons could visit a bar called the Green Door in the 1920s, where tokens could be bought to use for drinks or time with other men. In 1936, the Greenwich Tavern opened and was well known as a safe space for gay people. Into the 1940s, more safe spaces for gay people to congregate opened, including the Keyhole at the Gibson Hotel, the Horseshow Bar, Jim’s on Eastern Avenue, Jacob’s, and Club Melody. [28]

The Personal Rights Organization was formed in 1960s, publishing the first gay publication called PRO. The Cincinnati Gay Community group formed in 1972 in response to a police raid at the Chaperone Club. The group’s goal was to fight the discrimination the LGBTQ+ community was facing. This group initiated the first Cincinnati Pride celebration in 1973, predating Cleveland's inaugural Pride by a year and starting nearly a decade before Columbus's Pride events began.

In the 1970s, the Crazy Ladies Bookstore was one of the few safe spaces for lesbian and queer women in the LGBTQ+ community, where they could buy books, pamphlets, and other literature related to the life of LGBTQ+ individuals. Later, the third floor of the Crazy Ladies Bookstore would be turned into the Ohio Lesbian Archives, a donation-based collection of LGBTQ+ materials. [29] The Ohio Lesbian Archive was founded by the editors of Dinah, Phebe Beiser and Victoria Ramstetter. Dinah was a Cincinnati based publication for the queer and lesbian community that published event calendars, personal essays and columns, and advertisements for LGBTQ+ friendly businesses.

Until 1993, the LGBTQ+ community in Cincinnati saw significant progress: establishments catering to the LGBTQ+ community opened, the fight for LGBTQ+ rights was covered by the media, and recognition for the community’s presence and contributions to Cincinnati was increasing. [30]

1992 saw the passage of Cincinnati City Council’s LGBTQ+ inclusive nondiscrimination ordinance, which prevented discrimination of people based on race, gender, age, color, religion, disability status, sexual orientation, marital status, ethnic, national, or regional origin in employment, housing and public accommodations. In 1993, opposition to the nondiscrimination ordinance soon grew due to the inclusion of sexual orientation as a protected class. This led to the passage of Issue 3 in 1993, which created Article XII in the city's charter. Article XII stated, “No special class status may be granted based upon sexual orientation, conduct or relationships.” [31] This made Cincinnati unique in explicitly prohibiting LGBTQ+ individuals from achieving full equality, setting it apart from other cities where rights were simply repealed. [32]

After the devastation of the passing of Article XII, the activism that defined the 1970s and 80s waned, organizations struggled to sustain their activities, fundraising declined, and even Pride celebrations stopped for a few years. This era of turmoil continued until 2004’s repeal of Article XII. 

The same community that grieved for the passing of Article XII worked together as individuals and as members of organizations to repeal it. The LGBTQ+ community in Cincinnati achieved a remarkable feat: orchestrating the only pro-gay ballot initiative nationwide. This feat occurred despite a seemingly LGBTQ+ hostile atmosphere in Ohio as Ohio's ban on same-sex marriage passed that same year. Though various organizations played a prominent role, the work of individuals cannot be ignored. Grassroots efforts to engage the public at large, with LGBTQ+ individuals personally connecting with voters through conversations about how Article XII impacted them as humans. The voters listened, and together, the LGBTQ+ community and its allies voted to repeal Article XII. [33]

The hard work of the LGBTQ+ community to establish Cincinnati as a safe space has been rewarded. This was evident in Chris Seelbach’s 2011 electuary victory when he made history as the first openly gay politician elected to Cincinnati City Council. With his position on the council, he advocated for LGBTQ+ equality throughout his tenure. Tamaya Dennard followed suit in 2017, becoming the first openly gay woman of color elected to public office in the city. Once known for banning protections for the LGBTQ+ community, Cincinnati is now recognized as the second city in the nation to ban conversion therapy. After years of dedicated effort, Cincinnati has transformed into a city where sexual orientation and gender identity are respected and protected. [34]

Today, there are LGBTQ+ organizations all across the state. Columbus Stonewall Union, now known as Stonewall Columbus, is still active today. Their Stonewall Center hosts programs such as coming out support, men and women’s support groups, ballroom dance, book clubs, networking and community building opportunities. They continue to host the Columbus Pride festival which now welcomes over 750,000 people. The LGBTQ+ Community Center of Greater Cleveland continues to advocate for and support the LGBTQ+ community. They host Pride in the CLE, Q You Queer Youth Initiative, the Education Institute, Rainbow Pioneers, and more. Many organizations in Cincinnati continue to advocate, provide support, training and resources to the LGBTQ+ community, their loved ones, educators and more. Colleges throughout Ohio offer LGBTQ+ student organizations. Though much progress has been made, the LGBTQ+ community continues to face legislative challenges throughout the state and nation. There is still work to be done to achieve equality. 

1. Wex Definitions Team. “Sodomy,” Cornell Law School, updated August 2021. In Bass v. State, sodomy is defined as “any sexual act involving the sex organs of one person and the mouth or anus of another.” 

2. “Why Sodomy Laws Matter,” ACLU, June 26, 2003, https://www.aclu.org/documents/why-sodomy-laws-matter.

3. “LGBTQ+ Rights Timeline in American History,” Teaching LGBTQ+ History, Our Family Coalition, accessed April 2, 2024, https://LGBTQ+history.org/lgbt-rights-timeline-in-american-history/.

4. Library of Congress, s.v. “1969: The Stonewall Uprising,” last modified July 14, 2022, https://guides.loc.gov/LGBTQ+-studies/stonewall-era#s-lib-ctab-24103782-0

5. Library of Congress, s.v. “Activism After Stonewall,” last modified July 14, 2022, https://guides.loc.gov/LGBTQ+-studies/after-stonewall.

6. “A Timeline of HIV and AIDS,” HIV.gov, last modified December 2023, https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/overview/history/hiv-and-aids-timeline#year-1999.

7. Ibid.

8. George Barnum, “Gay Community,” Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, Case Western Reserve University, accessed April 2, 2024, https://case.edu/ech/articles/g/gay-community.

9. John Nosek and Leon Stevens, “Gay Community 1970s,” Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, Case Western Reserve University, accessed April 2, 2024, https://case.edu/ech/articles/g/gay-community-1970s.

10. Nosek and Stevens, “Gay Community 1970s.”

11. Ibid.

12. Ken Schneck, LGBTQ+ Cleveland (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2018), 54.

13. Nosek and Stevens, ”Gay Community 1970s.”

14. Ibid.

15. "AIDS Taskforce of Greater Cleveland,” Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, Case Western Reserve University, accessed April 2, 2024, https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/aids-taskforce-greater-cleveland.

16. Grace Howard, ”ACT UP Cleveland,” Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, Case Western Reserve University, accessed April 2, 2024, https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/act-cleveland.

17. Sidney Negron, ”Black Gay Pride,” Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, Case Western Reserve University, accessed April 2, 2024, https://case.edu/ech/articles/b/black-gay-pride.

18. Ken Schneck and Shane McClelland, LGBTQ+ Columbus (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2019), 10.

19. Schneck and McClelland, LGBTQ+ Columbus, 10.

20. Ibid, 38.

21. Stonewall Columbus. “About Us,” https://stonewallcolumbus.org/about/.

22. Schneck and McClelland, LGBTQ+ Columbus, 56-57.

23. Ibid, 8.

24. Ibid, 8.

25. Ibid, 6-8.

26. Ibid, 8.

27. Ken Schneck, LGBTQ+ Cincinnati (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2020), 8.

28. Schneck, LGBTQ+ Cincinnati, 8.

29. Clarity Amrein, “The History and Future of the Ohio Lesbian Archives,” Cincinnati Public Library, July 15, 2020. https://chpl.org/blogs/post/the-history-and-future-of-the-ohio-lesbian-archives/

30. Schneck, LGBTQ+ Cincinnati, 8.

31. Equality Fnd. Cincinnati v. City of Cincinnati, 128 F.3d 289 (6th Cir. 1997).

32. Schneck, LGBTQ+ Cincinnati, 67.

33. Ibid, 67-74.

34. Ibid, 8.