Organizers:
Elise Stickles, University of British Columbia
Schuyler Laparle, Tilburg University
As the climate emergency is re-conceptualized as an issue of collective action and social justice rather than a scientific or engineering problem (e.g., Turner 2022), climate communications research has focused on metaphors for climate change in terms of their persuasiveness, accuracy, and potential for effecting change (e.g., Castree 2020; Chen 2012; Flusberg et al 2017; Guy et al. 2014; Thibodeau et al. 2017). In this theme session, we turn a critical eye on the state of climate change metaphor communications and research. In order to move toward equitable and transformative change, a diversity of voices and knowledge systems must be included in climate discourse (Ford et al. 2016; Klenk et al. 2017; Rice et al. 2018; Yusoff & Gabrys 2011), especially because the voices of those most impacted by the climate crisis are under- and mis-represented (Gay 2014; Gemenne 2010; Ngcamu 2023). This shift toward a more inclusive climate conversation should also be in climate metaphor research.
The first paper in the session provides an overview of the state of climate metaphor research across three languages with a systematic literature review. The study finds an overall predominance of American and British English and little to no representation of Latin American Spanishes or French outside Europe, concluding that metaphor research is remiss in its narrow focus on European and American linguistic data.
The second paper turns to the multimodal framing of climate change in climate activism. It compares the rhetorical strategies of a “mainstream” legacy climate advocacy organization (World Wildlife Federation, WWF) with those of a more controversial newer one (Extinction Rebellion, XR). This study finds that the metaphors used in WWF advertising fail to capture the symbiotic relationship between humanity and the natural world, instead conveying the harms of climate change as a distant threat; in contrast, XR’s metaphors emphasize the interconnectivity of humanity and environment.
Next, we continue our analysis of metaphors in the media with a paper investigating the metaphors used in journalistic reporting on carbon dioxide removal technologies across four varieties of English. The paper argues that as these technologies are still poorly understood by the public, the metaphors used to frame them in news reporting are likely to have a significant influence on how they are perceived.
Our penultimate paper continues the study of climate technologies, focusing instead on how they are metaphorically construed in social media. This study considers both the metaphors used by a range of stakeholders on social media, and how they are received by the public in terms of social media engagement metrics. By considering public engagement such as upvotes and retweets, the paper reveals how social media users accept or reject different climate technology metaphors.
We conclude our session by putting metaphor fully into the public’s hands – quite literally. This paper describes the development of an educational card game which promotes systems reasoning and creativity via the development of novel climate change metaphors. By putting learners in charge of the meaning-making process and encouraging them to critically consider different climate metaphors, this approach democratizes climate change discourse.
References
Castree, N. (2020). The discourse and reality of carbon dioxide removal: Toward the responsible use of metaphors in post-normal times. Frontiers in Climate, 2, e614014.
Chen, X. (2012). The greenhouse metaphor and the greenhouse effect: A case study of a flawed analogous model. In L. Magnani & L. Ping (eds.), Philosophy and Cognitive Science: Western & Eastern Studies (pp. 105-114). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Flusberg, S. J., Matlock, T., & Thibodeau, P. H. (2017). Metaphors for the war (or race) against climate change. Environmental Communication, 11(6), 769-783.
Ford, J. D., Cameron, L., Rubis, J., Maillet, M., Nakashima, D., Willox, A. C., & Pearce, T. (2016). Including indigenous knowledge and experience in IPCC assessment reports. Nature Climate Change, 6(4), 349-353.
Gay, J. C. (2014). Global warming and the exploitation of small island states. L'Espace Geographique, 43(1), 81-89.
Gemenne, F. (2010). Tuvalu, un laboratoire du changement climatique? Une critique empirique de la rhétorique des « canaris dans la mine ». Revue Tiers Monde, 204(4), 89-107.
Guy, S., Kashima, Y., Walker, I., & O’Neill, S. (2013). Comparing the atmosphere to a bathtub: Effectiveness of analogy for reasoning about accumulation. Climatic Change, 121, 579-594.
Klenk, N., Fiume, A., Meehan, K., & Gibbes, C. (2017). Local knowledge in climate adaptation research: moving knowledge frameworks from extraction to co‐production. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 8(5), e475.
Ngcamu, B. S. (2023). Climate change effects on vulnerable populations in the Global South: A systematic review. Natural Hazards, 118(2), 977-991.
Rice, J. L., Burke, B. J., & Heynen, N. (2018). Knowing climate change, embodying climate praxis: Experiential knowledge in Southern Appalachia. In B. Braun (ed.), Futures: Imagining socioecological transformation (pp. 29-38). New York: Routledge.
Thibodeau, P. H., Frantz, C. M. P., & Berretta, M. (2017). The earth is our home: Systemic metaphors to redefine our relationship with nature. Climatic Change, 142, 287-300.
Turner, C. (2022). How To Be A Climate Optimist: Blueprints For A Better World. Toronto: Random House Canada.
Yusoff, K., & Gabrys, J. (2011). Climate change and the imagination. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 2(4), 516-534.
List of abstract submissions:
● Elise Stickles, Kimberly Grogan, Ana Arrieta-Zamudio, Joshua Levesque, and Laura Schneider (University of British Columbia)
○ Title: A systematic literature review of climate change related metaphors in English, Spanish and French: Methods and preliminary results
● Kimberly Grogan (University of British Columbia)
○ Title: Using metaphor to encourage climate change mitigation in multimodal environmental campaigns: A comparison of World Wildlife Fund and Extinction Rebellion posters
● Femke van Bruggen (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam)
○ Title: Waste disposal, vacuum cleaners and band-aids: the role of metaphors and journalistic sources in online news media coverage of carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technologies
● Anaïs Augé and Gudrun Reijnierse (Université catholique de Louvain and Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam)
○ Title: Tracking metaphorical interactions about climate technologies in social media discussions
● Schuyler Laparle, Simone Ashby, and Julian Hanna (Tilburg University)
○ Title: Critiquing climate change metaphors through play
Our findings suggest that vocabulary production is shaped by a combination of factors, such as cross-linguistic influence and use of cognates, attachment strategies (e.g., semantic similarity), sociocultural experiences and emotional experiences, retrieval strategies, cognitive mechanisms like analogical reasoning, and individual differences including learner creativity and prior language knowledge.
References
Artola, T., J. Barraca, C. Martín, P. Mosteiro, I. Ancillo and B. Poveda. (2008). PIC-J. Prueba de imaginación creativa para jóvenes. Madrid: TEA
Boers, F. (2013). Cognitive linguistic approaches to teaching vocabulary: Assessment and integration. Language Teaching, 46(2), 208-224.
Castellano-Risco, I. & Piquer-Píriz, A. (2020). Measuring Secondary-School L2 Learners Vocabulary Knowledge: Metaphorical Competence as Part of General Lexical Competence. In A. Piquer-Píriz & R. Alejo-González (Ed.), Metaphor in Foreign Language Instruction (pp. 199-218). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
Laufer, B. and P. Nation. (1999). A Vocabulary-Size Test of Controlled Productive Ability. Language Testing 16, 33-51.
O'Reilly, D. (2017). An investigation into metaphoric competence in the L2: A linguistic approach. PhD thesis, University of York.
Keywords:
Productive vocabulary; L2 learners; L3 learners; secondary education.
Presentation 2: Metaphorical competence, language proficiency, and vocabulary production in L2 and L3 secondary school EFL Learners in Spain
Irene Castellano-Risco, Ana M. Piquer-Píriz, Alba Martín-Ramos, Universidad de Extremadura
Over the past three decades, research on metaphorical competence (MC) has underscored its importance in second language acquisition (Danesi, 1986; Low 1988, Littlemore, 2001; MacArthur, 2010; Nacey, 2017).
MC is defined as the ability to understand, interpret, and produce figurative language and has been recognised as essential for advanced L2 command, allowing learners to deal with non-literal L2 language. While studies have predominantly focused on metaphor production, the receptive dimension has received less attention, even though L2 learners often need to understand figurative meanings more than produce them, especially at basic user levels. Additionally, the relationship between MC and overall lexical competence has also been underexplored (Castellano-Risco & Piquer-Píriz, 2020).
In this presentation, we address these gaps by analysing the receptive and productive MC of L2 (n=314) and L3 (n=120) teenage learners in secondary education in Spain, focusing on their ability to comprehend heuristic similes through Tests 6-Heuristic-R and -P in O’Reilly’s (2017) MC Test Battery. We further examine the relationship between this ability and general language proficiency and productive vocabulary knowledge.
Alongside O’Reilly’s test, two additional instruments were employed: the Oxford Placement Test (OPT) for assessing general proficiency and the 2K level of the Productive Vocabulary Levels Test (PVLT). Although our data reveal considerable heterogeneity within the sample, reflecting the diversity in this population, the findings indicate a moderate positive correlation between MC scores, productive vocabulary, and language proficiency within each group. These results align with previous research linking metaphor comprehension and production with vocabulary depth (O’Reilly & Marsden, 2023) and language proficiency (Teymouri & Dowlatabadi, 2014). Our data also reveal that L3 learners have a lower level of both language proficiency and productive vocabulary, with statistically significant differences for both measures (p=0.007 and p=0.032, respectively) compared to the L2 learners. However, no significant differences were found between L2 and L3 learners regarding receptive metaphorical competence (p = 0.979). These findings will be discussed in terms of the potential pedagogical implications of activating MC in the EFL classroom.
References
Castellano-Risco, I., & Piquer-Píriz, A. M. (2019). Measuring Secondary-School L2 Learners Vocabulary Knowledge: Metaphorical Competence as Part of General Lexical Competence. In A. M. Piquer-Píriz & R. Alejo-González (Eds.), Metaphor in Foreign Language Instruction (pp. 199-218). De Gruyter.
Danesi, M. (1986). The role of metaphor in second language pedagogy. Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata, 18(2), 101–112.
Low, G. D. (1988). On teaching metaphor. Applied linguistics, 9(2), 125-147.
Littlemore, J. (2001). Metaphoric competence: A language learning strength of students with a holistic cognitive style?. TESOL Quarterly, 35(3), 459-491.
MacArthur, F. (2010). Metaphorical competence in EFL: Where are we and where should we be going? A view from the language classroom. AILA review, 23(1), 155-173.
Nacey, S. (2017). Metaphor comprehension and production in a second language. In The Routledge handbook of metaphor and language (pp. 521-534). Routledge.
O'Reilly, D. (2017). An investigation into metaphoric competence in the L2: A linguistic approach. PhD thesis, University of York.
O’Reilly, D., and Marsden, E. (2023). Elicited metaphoric competence in a second language: a construct associated with vocabulary knowledge and general proficiency?. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 61(2), 287-327.
Teymouri Aleshtar, M. & Dowlatabadi, H. (2014). Metaphoric competence and language proficiency in the same boat. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 1895–1904.
Keywords: metaphorical competence; L2 proficiency; productive vocabulary; L2 learners, L3 learners
Presentation 3: Identifying metaphors beyond L1 English: Insights from the HERPRO project on L2 and L3 EFL discourse
Marta Martín-Gilete, Rafa Alejo-González, Universidad de Extremadura
Over the last decade, interest in standardised metaphor identification procedures has grown, particularly for analysing naturally produced metaphorical language in English and other languages (Nacey et al. 2019). The MIPVU method (Steen et al., 2010) has proven effective for measuring metaphor frequency and types in the oral and written discourse of L2 English speakers, enhancing understanding of vocabulary depth across proficiency levels, L1 backgrounds, age groups, and educational stages in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts (Littlemore et al., 2014; Nacey, 2013) and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) contexts (Author2, 2024; MacArthur, 2019). However, applying MIPVU to non-native-like English presents challenges. Designed for L1 English speakers, it does not fully incorporate insights from L2 acquisition research, such as processing dynamics, and often overlooks the heterogeneity of non-native language use (MacArthur & Littlemore, 2011). Recent modifications (Author2, 2024) address these limitations, focusing on tokenisation rather than adapting identification decisions for unconventional uses. Consequently, learner errors and non-standard constructions are typically addressed only in post-analysis (Hoang & Boers, 2018; Littlemore et al., 2014). Similarly, criteria for addressing non-native-like phraseology during metaphor identification vary widely, from cognitive-focused approaches (Nacey, 2020) to lexical-focused approaches (Author1, 2024). Stricter criteria emphasising native-like accuracy can sometimes be overly stringent, particularly when communicative efficacy takes precedence over conventional linguistic forms (MacArthur, 2016).
This paper introduces LX-MIPVU, a slightly adapted version of the MIPVU procedure (Steen et al., 2010), for identifying metaphorical language in learner discourse following a cognitive-lexical approach. Incorporating insights from additional languages (LX) beyond L1 English, LX-MIPVU provides a flexible framework for analysing organic metaphors, balancing cognitive aspects with lexical accuracy throughout the analytical phases of the standard procedure. By focusing on metaphorical competence and lexico-grammatical elements, this approach addresses learner errors and unconventional constructions to accommodate the heterogeneity of non-native language use in EFL contexts.
As part of the nationally funded HERCOG project, LX-MIPVU was employed to explore metaphor usage as an indicator of vocabulary depth in the written production of secondary school English learners (N=216). The study compared the frequency (density rates) and types (open vs. closed-class items) of metaphors used by L2 (n=176) and L3 (n=40) learners, who wrote 120–150-word compositions proposing solutions to combat climate change. Results, along with troubleshooting methods and examples, will be discussed. Additionally, the reliability of the adapted metaphor identification procedure, evaluated by five analysts (both native and non-native English speakers), will be presented.
Keywords: MIPVU; learner discourse; vocabulary depth; English as a Foreign Language; L2 and L3 learners.
References
Author1, (2024).
Author2, (2024).
Hoang, H., & Boers, F. (2018). Gauging the association of EFL learners’ writing proficiency and their use of metaphorical language. System, 74, 1–8.
Littlemore, J., Krennmayr, T., Turner, J., & Turner, S. (2014). An investigation into metaphor use at different levels of second language writing. Applied Linguistics, 35(2), 117–144.
MacArthur, F. (2016). When languages and cultures meet: Mixed metaphors in the discourse of Spanish speakers of English. In R. W. Gibbs (Ed.), Mixing metaphor (pp. 133–154). John Benjamins Publishing Company.
MacArthur, F. (2019). Linguistic metaphor identification in English as a lingua franca. In S. Nacey, A. G. Dorst, T. Krennmayr & W. G. Reijnierse (Eds.), Metaphor identification in multiple languages MIPVU around the world (pp. 289–312). John Benjamins Publishing Company.
MacArthur, F., & Littlemore, J. (2011). On the repetition of words with the potential for metaphoric extension in conversations between native and non-native speakers of English. Metaphor and the Social World, 1(2), 201–239.
Nacey, S. (2013). Metaphors in learner English. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Nacey, S. (2020). Development of L2 metaphorical production. In A. M. Piquer-Píriz & R. Alejo-González (Eds.), Metaphor in foreign language instruction (pp. 173–198). De Gruyter Mouton.
Nacey, S., Dorst, A. G., Krennmayr, T., & Reijnierse, W. G. (2019). Metaphor identification in multiple languages: MIPVU around the world. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Steen, G., Dorst, A. G., Herrmann, J. B., Kaal, A. A., Krennmayr, T., & Pasma, T. (2010). A method for linguistic metaphor identification: From MIP to MIPVU. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Presentation 4: Visual “noise” in metaphorical competence: the dynamism of resemblance metaphors in secondary Spanish students' L2 English writing
Laura V. Fielden-Burns, Rafael Alejo-González, Universidad de Extremadura
In the same way as the ability to perceive and establish similarities is fundamental to cognition and is reflected in the way L1 speakers structure and use language (Ruiz de Mendoza & Barrera, 2022), L2 speakers also draw on their cognitive resources to recognize similarities between different domains and make connections. These connections can give rise to the use of language in a creative way that enhances their linguistic competence. This ability, typically reflected in the use of similes, has been identified as a constituent part of metaphorical competence, defined as “the ability to use metaphorical language, ideas, and systems conventionally, creatively, strategically, and skilfully” (O’Reilly & Marsden, 2021, p. 2). However, while there is a recent interest in the study of similes in L1 production and discourse (Romano, 2017; Ruiz de Mendoza, 2024), the use of similes by L2 speakers is still in its infancy.
In this nationally funded study (HERCOG, PID2022 137337NB C-22) using Test 6-Heuristic-P (O’Reilly, 2017), secondary school students in Spain (n=434, 19 of which were discarded) were asked to complete similes such as: “Clouds function like….”. L2 students’ responses often wove together resemblance metaphors that included both physical and behavioural property similarities, highlighting the dynamicity of the underlying imagery (Ureña & Faber, 2010). However, student metaphors also strayed toward seemingly off-target imagery, creating a sort of visual “noise” to the heuristic task at hand. For example, to the previous prompt, some responses were “a big cotton candy” and “marshmallows,” with no clear connection to how clouds work, but a very obvious reference to their related visual representations. Thus, using the categorization proposed by Ruiz de Mendoza (2023), in this qualitative and quantitative study, similes were categorized as high-level and low-level resemblance. We analysed whether the use of high-level resemblance similes correlated with higher scores on the heuristic task, indicating a deeper understanding of the metaphorical concept. The findings suggest that while L2 students are capable of generating creative and visually rich metaphors, there is a need for further instruction on how to align these metaphors more closely with the intended functional similarities.
The results point toward a more nuanced understanding of how resemblance metaphors on a dynamic continuum may constitute L2 learners metaphorical competence, and conclusions include possible didactic strategies, where imagery may be related to the L1 acquisition process and the L2 learning process.
References
Cohen, M. (2009). "The Effectiveness of Imagery Interventions on the Vocabulary Learning of Second Grade Students" (2009). NERA Conference Proceedings 2009. 33.
Grady, J. (1999) A typology of motivation for conceptual metaphor: Correlation vs. resemblance. In R. Gibbs & G. Steen (Eds.), Metaphor in cognitive linguistics (pp. 79–100). John Benjamins.
Littlemore, J. (2010). Metaphoric competence in the first and second language: Similarities and differences. In M. Pütz & L. Sicola (Eds.), Cognitive processing in second language acquisition: Inside the learner's mind (pp. 293–315). John Benjamins Publishing Company.
MacArthur, F. (2010). Metaphorical competence in EFL: Where are we and where should we be going? A view from the language classroom. AILA Review, (23)1, 155 – 173.
Maamuujav, U., Booth Olson, C., & Chong, H. (2021). Syntactic and lexical features of adolescent L2 students' academic writing. Journal of Second Language Writing 53(1), 100822.
O’Reilly, D. & Marsden, E. (2021). Eliciting and Measuring L2 Metaphoric Competence: Three Decades on from Low (1988), Applied Linguistics, (42)1, 24–59,
Piquer-Píriz, A. (2020). Figurative Language and Young L2 Learners. In Metaphor in Foreign Language Instruction edited by Ana María Piquer-Píriz and Rafael Alejo-González, 57-78. De Gruyter Mouton.
Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, F. (2024). Metaphor as a resemblance phenomenon: A re-examination of the role of similarity in conceptual metaphor. Cognitive Linguistic Studies, (11)1, 8 – 33.
Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, F. J. (2022). Analogical and non-analogical resemblance in figurative language: a cognitive-linguistic perspective. In Metaphors and analogies in sciences and humanities: Words and worlds (pp. 269-293). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Ruiz de Mendoza, F. J. (2023). How like-simile relates to metaphor: An exploration of analytical parameters. Lege artis. VIII (1), Special issue, 110-128
Romano, M. (2017). Are similes and metaphors interchangeable? A case study in opinion discourse. Review of Cognitive Linguistics, 15(1), 1-33.
Ureña, J.M. & Faber, P. (2010) Reviewing imagery in resemblance and non-resemblance metaphors. Cognitive Linguistics, 21(1), 123-149.
Wang, J. & Hu, C. (2018). Similarity, Metaphor and Creativity. Language and Semiotic Studies, 4(3), 101-116.
Keywords: resemblance metaphor; L2 learners; metaphorical competence; simile; secondary school
Presentation 5: Exploring the predictive role of creativity in L2 metaphor production
Rafael Alejo-González, Universidad de Extremadura
Research into L2 speakers' metaphor production has primarily relied on naturalistic data, often derived from written assignments (e.g., Littlemore et al., 2014; Nacey, 2013) and, more recently, oral production by L2 learners (e.g., Alejo-Gonzalez, 2024). In contrast, elicitation methods like comprehension or production tests (e.g., Azuma, 2005) have been used sparingly. Only recently has a comprehensive test battery for assessing metaphorical competence, the Metaphor Competence Test (O’Reilly, 2017), been developed and validated. This innovative instrument captures the complex, multifaceted nature of metaphorical competence and opens new avenues for examining how various dimensions of metaphorical competence may connect with broader cognitive factors, such as creativity.
Creativity is a complex cognitive construct characterized by the capacity to produce ideas that are both original and useful (Simonton, 2012). One dimension of creativity is divergent thinking, which entails the generation of a variety of unique ideas in response to an open-ended question or problem (Guilford, 1959). Highly creative individuals seem to exhibit richer and more flexible semantic memory network structure (Kenett, 2024). This semantic memory structure has been proposed as a potential reason that highly creative individuals are better at understanding (Kenett et al., 2018) and producing novel metaphors (Li et al., 2021). However, these aspects have not yet been explored within the context of second language learning.
The present study explores the potential impact of creative ability (verbal and visual divergent thinking) on metaphor production in 41 L2 EFL learners in year 10. To gauge metaphor competence, Test 6-Heuristic-P (O’Reilly, 2017), measuring the ability of learners to produce similes, was used. Creativity was assessed using the PIC-J test by Artola et al. (2008). The results of the multiple regression indicate a moderate connection between the ability to produce similes and the creativity scores of the L2 learners.
References
Artola, T., Barraca, J., Martín, C., Mosteiro, P., Ancillo, I., & Poveda, B. (2008). PIC-J. Prueba de Imaginación creativa para jóvenes. TEA Ediciones.
Azuma, M. (2005). Metaphorical competence in an EFL context. Toshindo.
Guilford, J. P. (1959). Three faces of intellect. American Psychologist, 14(8), 469–479.
Kenett, Y. N. (2024). The Role of Knowledge in Creative Thinking. Creativity Research Journal, 1–8.
Kenett, Y. N., Gold, R., & Faust, M. (2018). Metaphor comprehension in low and high creative individuals. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 482.
Li, Y., Kenett, Y. N., Hu, W., & Beaty, R. E. (2021). Flexible semantic network structure supports the production of creative metaphor. Creativity Research Journal, 33(3)
Nacey, Susan. 2013. Metaphor in Learner English. John Benjamins.
O'Reilly, D. (2017). An investigation into metaphoric competence in the L2: A linguistic approach. PhD thesis, University of York.
Simonton, D. K. (2012). Teaching Creativity: Current Findings, Trends, and Controversies in the Psychology of Creativity. Teaching of Psychology, 39(3), 217–222.
Keywords: Metaphorical competence; creativity; heritage learners.