Psychology of development

The branch of psychology studying systematic physical, mental, and behavioral changes across the entire lifespan—from conception to old age—influenced by biological, social, cultural, and environmental factors, focusing on growth, adaptation, and maturation through various life stages. It examines shifts in cognition, emotion, personality, and social skills, viewing development as a continuous, complex process rather than just childhood growth.  

-APA

• Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 year) 

infants learn to trust their caregivers and the world around them

• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1-3 years): 

independence and developing a sense of autonomy VS overly controlled or criticized -shame and doubt

• Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3-6 years):

taking the initiative and exploring their environment VS excessive guilt or criticism

• Industry vs. Inferiority (Elementary School, 6-12 years): 

developing competence and a sense of accomplishment through learning and social interaction VS feelings of inferiority

• Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12-18 years):  

sense of identity and self-concept VS role confusion

• Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18-40 years):  

intimate relationships and finding a life partner VS feelings of isolation

• Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40-65 years): 

 contributing to the well-being of the next generation through work, family, and community involvement VS feelings of unproductivity

• Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years): 

reflecting on lives, seeking for meaning and satisfaction, sense of integrity and acceptance  VS unfulfilled goals

Attachment styles 

- John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (2013)

A - Secure Attachment: Children feel safe and confident in their caregiver's presence

B - Insecure Avoidant Attachment: Children avoid or minimize contact with their caregiver, child might not react strongly when their caregiver leaves the room and may not seek comfort upon their return

C - Insecure Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment: often anxious and uncertain in their caregiver's presence, may be clingy and have difficulty exploring their environment and may be difficult to console when upset.

Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development

Level 1: Preconventional Morality (Typically occurs in early childhood)

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation:   avoiding punishment
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange:  there is more than one way to view a situation, making deals

Level 2: Conventional Morality (Typically occurs in late childhood and early adolescence)

Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships: follow rules to gain approval and maintain positive relationships
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order:  maintaining social order and obeying authority figures,  rules and laws are essential for a stable society

Level 3: Postconventional Morality (Typically occurs in adolescence and adulthood)

Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights: laws are social agreements and can be changed if they are unfair or unjust, broader societal perspective
Stage 6: Universal Principles:   well-developed moral code based on universal ethical principles, act in accordance with their deeply-held values

Authoritative: responsive and nurturing while also setting clear boundaries and expectations., warm and supportive but also firm in enforcing rules., they encourage independence and open communication

Authoritarian: A strict and demanding. expect obedience and conformity from their children , often use punishment , one-way communication with little room for negotiation or discussion

Permissive:  lenient and indulgent,highly responsive to their children's desires and are often reluctant to set firm boundaries or enforce rules., children struggle with self-discipline

Uninvolved (Neglectful): emotionally detached,provide minimal supervision or support, preoccupied with their own concerns,often neglect children's emotional and physical needs

Helicopter (Overprotective): overly involved in their children's lives, often to the point of micromanaging,may not allow their children to make independent decisions or face challenges on their own

Free-Range: encourage independence and self-sufficiency , provide opportunities for exploration and problem-solving allowing their children to learn from their experiences

FATHERHOOD STYLES

• • Provider - provides material support, minimal contact with the children

  • Autonomous - avoids child-related responsibilities

  • Involved - fully participates

Emotional development

• Less favorable moods in then in children and adults

• Positive emotions arise from socializing and free activities, while negative emotions are due to circumstances structured by adults

• Aware of mixed and conflicting emotions

Social development

• Desire for autonomy, identity formation, development of social skills

• Mild conflicts strengthen identity and autonomy

• Peer pressure- bigger for younger adolescents

•  Cliques-5-7 members, similar expiriences and views, space for learning new skills

•  Friendships- loyalty, reciprocity...

• Boys value activities, achievements, and new friendships more, while girls value conversation, emotional closeness, and maintaining friendships
  *in general bit more common BUT that does not mean that boys dont value closeness and girls achivements 

Harlow's Monkey Experiments:

• Experiments with rhesus monkeys in the mid-20th century explored the importance of attachment and the role of social comfort in development

• The experiments demonstrated that infant monkeys preferred the comfort of a soft, cloth "mother" over a wire "mother" that provided food, highlighting the significance of emotional bonds in development

The Still-Face Experiment (Tronick et al., 1975):

• Examined the impact of maternal unresponsiveness on infants' emotional and social development

The "Three Mountains" Task (Piaget & Inhelder, 1956):

• Assessed children's ability to understand and represent spatial relationships and perspectives

 "Red Dot Experiment" Gordon Gallup 1970s:

•  Some chimpanzees exhibited self-exploratory behaviors upon seeing the red dot on their foreheads in a mirror

• They would touch or examine the dot

• Chimpanzees recognized that the reflection in the mirror was themselves and that the dot on their forehead was an anomaly