Topics

The following topics are taught during the Plant Structure course (BOT 315) at The New York Botanical Garden

Notes

Lecture

Topic covered

  • Cell Theory

  • Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote Cells

  • Magnifiers

  • Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells

Session Objectives

  • Define a cell

  • Define magnifiers and the use of each type

  • Describe the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

  • Define the functions of sub-cellular structures

Laboratory

  • Practice using the microscopes

Questions for Thought

  • How are cells observed?

  • What magnifier(s) would you use to look small parts of a leaf? Why?

  • How are plant and animal cells similar/different?

  • Which magnifier should you use to view fresh, three-dimensional plant material?

  • Why don’t cells grow indefinitely large?

  • How do the cell organelles function like a city?

  • How are chloroplasts and mitochondria interconnected to create energy for a plant cell?

  • How can prokaryote biomass be so large?

  • Why are there so many more eukaryote species?

  • See also the propagation section for comparison questions

Session 2: Cell Cycles (Mitosis, Meiosis, Interphase)

Notes

Lecture

Session Objectives

  • Understand and describe the stages of mitosis

  • Understand and describe interphase

  • Understand and describe the stages of meiosis

  • Understand and describe the plant’s life cycle, and the role of meiosis and fertilization

Topic covered

  • Mitosis

  • Interphase

  • Meiosis

Laboratory

  • Allium (onion) root tip [x400]: Cell in Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase

Questions for Thought

  • What is mitosis, in the simplest terms?

  • What steps are required before a cell can enter mitosis or meiosis?

  • How does a cell create two copies of itself in mitosis, without losing genetic information?

  • Where could you find examples of mitosis on a daffodil?

  • How is mitosis different from meiosis?

  • Why is crossing-over in meiosis important for genetic diversity?

  • Where could you find examples of meiosis on a daffodil?

  • How are karyokinesis and cytokinesis connected in plants, and what would be the effect if they weren't linked?

  • See also the tissues and propagation sections for comparison questions

Session 3: Cells & Tissues

Notes

Lecture

Topic covered

  • Simple Ground Tissues

  • Complex Tissues

  • Vascular Tissues

  • Dermal Tissues

  • Embryonic Tissues

Session Objectives

  • Understand and describe the function of different tissues

  • Identify the location of plant tissues

  • Understand and describe meristems

  • Identify the location of meristems in plants

  • Understand and describe the difference between primary and secondary growth

Laboratory

  • Monocot or Dicot stem (x.s.): Parenchyma, Sclerenchyma, Collenchyma, Primary xylem, Primary phloem

Questions for Thought

  • What is the difference between a cell, a tissue, and an organ for plants?

  • What are permanent plant tissues?

  • What are simple tissues?

  • What is the function of parenchyma? of collenchyma? of sclerenchyma?

    • How would you differentiate these under the microscope?

  • What is vascular tissue?

  • How could you differentiate sclerenchyma from xylem?

  • How do dermal tissues change from a seedling to a sapling?

  • What are embryonic plant tissues, and what cellular process dominates these tissues?

  • How could you differentiate embryonic tissues from parenchyma cells?

  • What is the difference between apical and lateral meristems?

  • Where are all the areas you would find embryonic tissues on a mature oak tree?

  • As monocots, how do palms and bamboos attain such great heights?

  • See also the root, stem, and leaf sections for comparison questions

Session 4: Roots

Notes

Lecture

Topic covered

  • Germination

  • Root Structure

  • Primary Growth in Roots

  • Secondary Growth in Roots

  • Monocots versus Eudicot Roots

  • Specialized Roots

  • Water Movement in Roots

Session Objectives

  • Understand and describe the structure of young and mature roots

  • Understand and describe the functions of roots

  • Understand and describe the development of main and lateral roots, as well as secondary growth

  • Understand and describe between monocot and eudicot roots

  • Understand and describe specialized functions of roots

Laboratory

  • Allium Root Tip (l.s.) [x40]: Regions of Elongation and Cell Division, Root Cap

  • Monocot root (x.s.) [Left:x40; Right:x100]: Epidermis, Cortex, Endodermis, Pericycle, Phloem, Xylem, Pith

  • Dicot root (x.s.) [Left:x40; Right:x400]: Epidermis, Cortex, Endodermis, Pericycle, Phloem, Xylem

Questions for Thought

  • What is germination, when does it begin, and when does it end?

  • How does a root develop through primary growth?

  • What are the zones of a young root as you go proximally along the root, starting at the root cap?

  • Where does water enter roots, and how does it travel to the xylem?

  • How does internal and external root structure differ in monocots and eudicots?

  • During secondary growth in roots, newly formed wood will replace the endodermis. Why doesn't this affect water absorption in the roots?

  • How do lateral roots form, and how is this different from stems?

  • What are some root adaptations in an arid environment?

  • What are some root adaptations in a water-logged environment, and how are these related to root respiration?

  • What are mycorrhizae, and how are they crucial to plant vigor?

  • What are root nodules, and how does this give these plant a competitive edge?

  • How is an adventitious root different from a radicle?

  • See also the stem section for comparison questions

Session 5: Stems

Notes

Lecture

Topic covered

  • Germination

  • Stem Structure

  • Primary Growth

  • Monocots vs. Eudicots

  • Lateral Stem Development

  • Secondary Growth

  • Specialized Stems

Session Objectives

  • Understand and describe the structure of young and mature stems

  • Understand and describe the functions of stems

  • Understand and describe the development of shoots, as well as secondary growth

  • Understand and describe between monocot and eudicot stems

  • Understand and describe specialized functions of stems

Laboratory

  • Monocot stem (x.s.) [Left:x40; Inset:x400]: Epidermis, Vascular Bundles,

  • Dicot stem (x.s.) [Far Right:x40; Inset:x100]: Epidermis, Cortex, Vascular Tissue, Pith

  • Tilia (basswood) 3-year-old stem (x.s.) [x40]: Periderm, Cork cambium, Secondary phloem, Vascular cambium, Secondary xylem (wood), Primary xylem, Pith

Questions for Thought

  • How are stems structurally different from roots?

  • What is a hypocotyl? an epicotyl?

  • How is "primary growth" defined?

  • How do young stems develop?

  • What is the difference between determinate and indeterminate growth?

  • What are the external features of a young stem?

  • What is the function of axillary buds?

  • How does internal stem structure differ in monocots and eudicots?

  • What is secondary growth, and how does it function?

  • What is a growth ring, and how is related to the vascular cambium?

  • What is a stem adaptation to an arid environment?

  • What is the difference between a stem tendril and leaf tendril?

  • What is the same/different between a corm, a rhizome, a stolon, and a tuber?

  • What are some ways in which plants use specialized roots and/or specialized stems to increase their spread in the environment?

  • See also the leaf section for comparison questions

Session 6: Leaves

Notes

Lecture

Topic covered

  • Germination

  • Leaf Structure

  • Leaf Structure & Types

  • Primary Growth in Leaves

  • Eudicot vs Monocot Leaves

  • C3, C4, and CAM Photosynthesis

  • Specialized Leaves

Session Objectives

  • Understand and describe the structure of mature leaves

  • Understand and describe the function of leaves

  • Understand and describe the development of leaves on the shoot system

  • Understand and describe between monocot and eudicot leaves

  • Understand and describe specialized functions of leaves

Laboratory

  • Coleus Stem Tip (l.s.) [x40]: Apical meristem, Leaf primordia, Bud primordia, Leaf, Axillary buds, Protoderm, Ground meristem, Procambium

  • Monocot leaf (x.s.) [x100]: Epidermis, Stomata, Vascular tissue (vein), Mesophyll, Bulliform cells

  • Dicot leaf (x.s.) [x100]: Epidermis, Stomata, Vascular tissue (vein), Palisade mesophyll, Spongy mesophyll

Questions for Thought

  • How are leaves different from stems?

  • What is the structure of a simple or compound leaf?

  • How do leaves develop?

  • How do the terms chlorenchyma and aerenchyma pertain to leaves, especially eudicots?

  • How does internal and external leaf structure differ in monocots and eudicots?

  • How are the leaves, stems, and roots interconnected to facilitate evapo-transpiration with the least amount of energy expended by the plant?

  • What is developmental plasticity, and how does this manifest itself in leaves?

  • What are bracts, and what is there function in plants?

  • What are leaf adaptations for arid environments?

  • What is the difference between a spine, thorn, and prickle?

  • In what manner are both autumn leaf changes and deciduousness, considered to be adaptations?

  • How do plants prepare for and promote leaf loss in the autumn, and where do new leaves appear in the spring?

  • What is the difference between a bulb and a corm?

  • How are bulbs and corms examples of plant structures with specialized roots, stems, and leaves?

  • How are reproductive leaves developmentally different?

  • What is the evolutionary function of carnivorous leaves?

Notes

Lecture

Topic covered

  • Flower Structure

  • Inflorescences

  • Complete and Perfect Flowers

  • Superior versus Inferior Ovaries

  • Fruit Structure

  • Fruit Dispersal

  • Growth Forms

Session Objectives

  • Understand and describe the structure and function of flowers parts

  • Understand and describe the pollination and fertilization

  • Understand and describe the formation of a fruit from a flower

  • Understand and describe between monocot and eudicot flowers

  • Understand and describe common plant pollination and dispersal mechanisms

Laboratory

  • Capsella embryo [x400]: Sepals, Petals, Stamens, Pistil, Ovules, Locule, Pollen

  • Monocot Flower Bud (x.s.) [x40]: Sepals, Petals, Stamens, Pistil, Ovules, Locule, Pollen

  • Dicot Flower Bud (x.s.) [x40]: Fruit wall, See coat, Radicle, Root apical meristem, Shoot Apical meristem, Cotyledons, Hypocotyl

Questions for Thought

  • What is a flower in an evolutionarily sense, and what is its function when open?

  • What is the specific function of each of the flower parts (i.e. sepals, petals, stamens, carpals)?

  • How is a flower a specialized shoot system?

  • What is an inflorescence?

  • What is a perfect flower? What is a complete flower?

  • How does an imperfect flower prevent inbreeding of a species?

  • How are the terms perigynous and pome interconnected?

  • When is an inflorescence the same as a flower?

  • Is a catkin perfect and complete? Why or why not?

  • In a composite inflorescence, is a disk flower considered complete? Why or why not?

  • How does the structure of cymes, corymbs, and composites aid in pollination?

  • What is the technical difference between a gymnosperm and angiosperm?

    • For example why is the berry-like structure of a yew (Taxus) still considered a gymnosperm, and the cone-like structure of an alder (Alnus) still an angiosperm.

  • What is the difference between a seed and an ovule?

  • What is the function of all fruits?

  • What is the difference between a simple, aggregate, and multiple fruit?

  • What does a pulpy or fleshy endocarp usually mean for seed dispersal?

  • Would you expect wind dispersal to be common in a tropical rain forest? Why or why not?

  • What are the differences in survival strategies between an annual plant and a perennial plant?

  • How is a monocarpic life cycle advantageous in extreme environments?

Notes

Lecture

Topic covered

  • Vegetative propagation

  • Laboratory Techniques

Session Objectives

  • Describe the different forms of asexual or vegetative propagation in plants

  • Describe how apical meristems and lateral meristems play a role in establishing new cuttings, layering, and division

  • Describe the role of hybridization, polyploidy, and mutations in plant breeding

  • Understand plant biotechnology techniques introduced during the 20th century

  • Describe how transgenic crops differ from other genetic modifications of plants

Laboratory

  • No lab; review session for final exam

Questions for Thought

  • What is polyploidy, and how does it lead to plant diversity?

  • How can polyploidy occur from errors in mitosis?

  • How can polyploidy occur from errors in meiosis?

  • What are vegetative methods for propagating plants through non-sexual means?

  • How does your understanding of embryonic cells explain tissue culturing, mericloning, and artificial seeds?

  • What attributes of cell organelles might scientists want to select in protoplast fusion?

  • What is genetic engineering, and how is transgenesis a specific example of this?