Topics
The following topics are taught during the Plant Structure course (BOT 315) at The New York Botanical Garden
Session 1: Cellular Structure
Notes
Cell Structure Notes
Lecture
Cell Structure PowerPoint
Topic covered
Cell Theory
Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote Cells
Magnifiers
Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells
Session Objectives
Define a cell
Define magnifiers and the use of each type
Describe the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Define the functions of sub-cellular structures
Laboratory
Practice using the microscopes
Questions for Thought
How are cells observed?
What magnifier(s) would you use to look small parts of a leaf? Why?
How are plant and animal cells similar/different?
Which magnifier should you use to view fresh, three-dimensional plant material?
Why don’t cells grow indefinitely large?
How do the cell organelles function like a city?
How are chloroplasts and mitochondria interconnected to create energy for a plant cell?
How can prokaryote biomass be so large?
Why are there so many more eukaryote species?
See also the propagation section for comparison questions
Notes
Cell Cycles Notes
Lecture
Cell Cycles PowerPoint
Session Objectives
Understand and describe the stages of mitosis
Understand and describe interphase
Understand and describe the stages of meiosis
Understand and describe the plant’s life cycle, and the role of meiosis and fertilization
Topic covered
Mitosis
Interphase
Meiosis
Laboratory
Allium (onion) root tip [x400]: Cell in Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase
Questions for Thought
What is mitosis, in the simplest terms?
What steps are required before a cell can enter mitosis or meiosis?
How does a cell create two copies of itself in mitosis, without losing genetic information?
Where could you find examples of mitosis on a daffodil?
How is mitosis different from meiosis?
Why is crossing-over in meiosis important for genetic diversity?
Where could you find examples of meiosis on a daffodil?
How are karyokinesis and cytokinesis connected in plants, and what would be the effect if they weren't linked?
See also the tissues and propagation sections for comparison questions
Session 3: Cells & Tissues
Notes
Lecture
Tissues PowerPoint
Topic covered
Simple Ground Tissues
Complex Tissues
Vascular Tissues
Dermal Tissues
Embryonic Tissues
Session Objectives
Understand and describe the function of different tissues
Identify the location of plant tissues
Understand and describe meristems
Identify the location of meristems in plants
Understand and describe the difference between primary and secondary growth
Laboratory
Monocot or Dicot stem (x.s.): Parenchyma, Sclerenchyma, Collenchyma, Primary xylem, Primary phloem
Questions for Thought
What is the difference between a cell, a tissue, and an organ for plants?
What are permanent plant tissues?
What are simple tissues?
What is the function of parenchyma? of collenchyma? of sclerenchyma?
How would you differentiate these under the microscope?
What is vascular tissue?
How could you differentiate sclerenchyma from xylem?
How do dermal tissues change from a seedling to a sapling?
What are embryonic plant tissues, and what cellular process dominates these tissues?
How could you differentiate embryonic tissues from parenchyma cells?
What is the difference between apical and lateral meristems?
Where are all the areas you would find embryonic tissues on a mature oak tree?
As monocots, how do palms and bamboos attain such great heights?
See also the root, stem, and leaf sections for comparison questions
Session 4: Roots
Notes
Roots Notes
Lecture
Roots PowerPoint
Topic covered
Germination
Root Structure
Primary Growth in Roots
Secondary Growth in Roots
Monocots versus Eudicot Roots
Specialized Roots
Water Movement in Roots
Session Objectives
Understand and describe the structure of young and mature roots
Understand and describe the functions of roots
Understand and describe the development of main and lateral roots, as well as secondary growth
Understand and describe between monocot and eudicot roots
Understand and describe specialized functions of roots
Laboratory
Allium Root Tip (l.s.) [x40]: Regions of Elongation and Cell Division, Root Cap
Monocot root (x.s.) [Left:x40; Right:x100]: Epidermis, Cortex, Endodermis, Pericycle, Phloem, Xylem, Pith
Dicot root (x.s.) [Left:x40; Right:x400]: Epidermis, Cortex, Endodermis, Pericycle, Phloem, Xylem
Questions for Thought
What is germination, when does it begin, and when does it end?
How does a root develop through primary growth?
What are the zones of a young root as you go proximally along the root, starting at the root cap?
Where does water enter roots, and how does it travel to the xylem?
How does internal and external root structure differ in monocots and eudicots?
During secondary growth in roots, newly formed wood will replace the endodermis. Why doesn't this affect water absorption in the roots?
How do lateral roots form, and how is this different from stems?
What are some root adaptations in an arid environment?
What are some root adaptations in a water-logged environment, and how are these related to root respiration?
What are mycorrhizae, and how are they crucial to plant vigor?
What are root nodules, and how does this give these plant a competitive edge?
How is an adventitious root different from a radicle?
See also the stem section for comparison questions
Session 5: Stems
Notes
Stems Notes
Lecture
Stems PowerPoint
Topic covered
Germination
Stem Structure
Primary Growth
Monocots vs. Eudicots
Lateral Stem Development
Secondary Growth
Specialized Stems
Session Objectives
Understand and describe the structure of young and mature stems
Understand and describe the functions of stems
Understand and describe the development of shoots, as well as secondary growth
Understand and describe between monocot and eudicot stems
Understand and describe specialized functions of stems
Laboratory
Monocot stem (x.s.) [Left:x40; Inset:x400]: Epidermis, Vascular Bundles,
Dicot stem (x.s.) [Far Right:x40; Inset:x100]: Epidermis, Cortex, Vascular Tissue, Pith
Tilia (basswood) 3-year-old stem (x.s.) [x40]: Periderm, Cork cambium, Secondary phloem, Vascular cambium, Secondary xylem (wood), Primary xylem, Pith
Questions for Thought
How are stems structurally different from roots?
What is a hypocotyl? an epicotyl?
How is "primary growth" defined?
How do young stems develop?
What is the difference between determinate and indeterminate growth?
What are the external features of a young stem?
What is the function of axillary buds?
How does internal stem structure differ in monocots and eudicots?
What is secondary growth, and how does it function?
What is a growth ring, and how is related to the vascular cambium?
What is a stem adaptation to an arid environment?
What is the difference between a stem tendril and leaf tendril?
What is the same/different between a corm, a rhizome, a stolon, and a tuber?
What are some ways in which plants use specialized roots and/or specialized stems to increase their spread in the environment?
See also the leaf section for comparison questions
Session 6: Leaves
Notes
Leaves Notes
Lecture
Leaves PowerPoint
Topic covered
Germination
Leaf Structure
Leaf Structure & Types
Primary Growth in Leaves
Eudicot vs Monocot Leaves
C3, C4, and CAM Photosynthesis
Specialized Leaves
Session Objectives
Understand and describe the structure of mature leaves
Understand and describe the function of leaves
Understand and describe the development of leaves on the shoot system
Understand and describe between monocot and eudicot leaves
Understand and describe specialized functions of leaves
Laboratory
Coleus Stem Tip (l.s.) [x40]: Apical meristem, Leaf primordia, Bud primordia, Leaf, Axillary buds, Protoderm, Ground meristem, Procambium
Monocot leaf (x.s.) [x100]: Epidermis, Stomata, Vascular tissue (vein), Mesophyll, Bulliform cells
Dicot leaf (x.s.) [x100]: Epidermis, Stomata, Vascular tissue (vein), Palisade mesophyll, Spongy mesophyll
Questions for Thought
How are leaves different from stems?
What is the structure of a simple or compound leaf?
How do leaves develop?
How do the terms chlorenchyma and aerenchyma pertain to leaves, especially eudicots?
How does internal and external leaf structure differ in monocots and eudicots?
How are the leaves, stems, and roots interconnected to facilitate evapo-transpiration with the least amount of energy expended by the plant?
What is developmental plasticity, and how does this manifest itself in leaves?
What are bracts, and what is there function in plants?
What are leaf adaptations for arid environments?
What is the difference between a spine, thorn, and prickle?
In what manner are both autumn leaf changes and deciduousness, considered to be adaptations?
How do plants prepare for and promote leaf loss in the autumn, and where do new leaves appear in the spring?
What is the difference between a bulb and a corm?
How are bulbs and corms examples of plant structures with specialized roots, stems, and leaves?
How are reproductive leaves developmentally different?
What is the evolutionary function of carnivorous leaves?
Session 7: Flowers, Fruits & Seeds
Notes
Lecture
Reproduction PowerPoint
Topic covered
Flower Structure
Inflorescences
Complete and Perfect Flowers
Superior versus Inferior Ovaries
Fruit Structure
Fruit Dispersal
Growth Forms
Session Objectives
Understand and describe the structure and function of flowers parts
Understand and describe the pollination and fertilization
Understand and describe the formation of a fruit from a flower
Understand and describe between monocot and eudicot flowers
Understand and describe common plant pollination and dispersal mechanisms
Laboratory
Capsella embryo [x400]: Sepals, Petals, Stamens, Pistil, Ovules, Locule, Pollen
Monocot Flower Bud (x.s.) [x40]: Sepals, Petals, Stamens, Pistil, Ovules, Locule, Pollen
Dicot Flower Bud (x.s.) [x40]: Fruit wall, See coat, Radicle, Root apical meristem, Shoot Apical meristem, Cotyledons, Hypocotyl
Questions for Thought
What is a flower in an evolutionarily sense, and what is its function when open?
What is the specific function of each of the flower parts (i.e. sepals, petals, stamens, carpals)?
How is a flower a specialized shoot system?
What is an inflorescence?
What is a perfect flower? What is a complete flower?
How does an imperfect flower prevent inbreeding of a species?
How are the terms perigynous and pome interconnected?
When is an inflorescence the same as a flower?
Is a catkin perfect and complete? Why or why not?
In a composite inflorescence, is a disk flower considered complete? Why or why not?
How does the structure of cymes, corymbs, and composites aid in pollination?
What is the technical difference between a gymnosperm and angiosperm?
For example why is the berry-like structure of a yew (Taxus) still considered a gymnosperm, and the cone-like structure of an alder (Alnus) still an angiosperm.
What is the difference between a seed and an ovule?
What is the function of all fruits?
What is the difference between a simple, aggregate, and multiple fruit?
What does a pulpy or fleshy endocarp usually mean for seed dispersal?
Would you expect wind dispersal to be common in a tropical rain forest? Why or why not?
What are the differences in survival strategies between an annual plant and a perennial plant?
How is a monocarpic life cycle advantageous in extreme environments?
Session 8: Propagation & Biotechnology
Notes
Propagation Notes
Lecture
Propagation PowerPoint
Topic covered
Vegetative propagation
Laboratory Techniques
Session Objectives
Describe the different forms of asexual or vegetative propagation in plants
Describe how apical meristems and lateral meristems play a role in establishing new cuttings, layering, and division
Describe the role of hybridization, polyploidy, and mutations in plant breeding
Understand plant biotechnology techniques introduced during the 20th century
Describe how transgenic crops differ from other genetic modifications of plants
Laboratory
No lab; review session for final exam
Questions for Thought
What is polyploidy, and how does it lead to plant diversity?
How can polyploidy occur from errors in mitosis?
How can polyploidy occur from errors in meiosis?
What are vegetative methods for propagating plants through non-sexual means?
How does your understanding of embryonic cells explain tissue culturing, mericloning, and artificial seeds?
What attributes of cell organelles might scientists want to select in protoplast fusion?
What is genetic engineering, and how is transgenesis a specific example of this?