Journal Publications

Sturgeon, D.J.E., Steele, Z.T., & Pienaar, E.F. (2025) Exploring emotional attachment to non-traditional pets using the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS). Anthrozoos, accepted.

Abstract: The growing popularity of non-traditional pets, including reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects, and arachnids, raises important questions about owner attachment and animal welfare. We assessed emotional attachment among U.S. non-traditional pet owners using the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS). An online survey of 1,218 adult pet owners was conducted between 2018 and 2021 through both targeted recruitment (rescue groups, permit holders, herpetological societies) and general population sampling. The LAPS demonstrated excellent internal consistency when applied to non-traditional pets, supporting its cross-taxon validity. Owners of multiple taxa of pets reported significantly higher attachment scores than owners of a single taxon. Linear regression models revealed higher attachment among female respondents and those who personally chose to acquire their pets. Conversely, attachment was lower among older respondents, those with higher incomes, and single taxon owners who exclusively owned non-traditional pets. Our results underscore the importance of considering owner demographics and motivations for acquiring pets when designing pet welfare interventions and targeted education for non-traditional pet owners.

Bacher S, Ryan-Colton E, Coiro M, Cassey P, Galil BS, Nuñez MA, Ansong M, Dehnen-Schmutz K, Fayvush G, Fernandez RD, Hiremath AJ, Ikegami M, Martinou AF, McDermott SM, Preda C, Vilà M, Weyl OLF, Ananthram AN, Angelidou I, Athanasiou K, Atkore V, Barney JN, Blackburn TM, Brockerhoff EG, Carbutt C, Carisio L, Céspedes V, Christopoulou A, Cisneros-Heredia DF, Cooling M, de Groot M, Demetriou J, Dickey JWE, Duboscq-Carra VG, Early R, Evans TE, Gallardo B, Gruber M, Hui C, Jeschke JM, Joelson NZ, Khan MA, Kumschick S, Lach L, Lapin K, Lioy S, Liu C, MacMullen ZJ, Mazzitelli MA, Measey J, Mrugała-Koese AA, Musseau CL, Nahrung HF, Pepori A, Pertierra LR, Pienaar EF, Pyšek P, Rivas Torres G, Rojas Martinez HA, Rojas-Sandoval J, Ryan-Schofield NL, Sánchez RM, Santini A, Santoro D, Scalera R, Schmidt L, Shivambu TC, Sohrabi S, Tricarico E, Trillo A, van't Hof P, Volery L, Zengeya TA (2025) Global Impacts Dataset of Invasive Alien Species (GIDIAS). Scientific Data 12: 832.

Abstract: Invasive alien species are a major driver of global change, impacting biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human livelihoods. To document these impacts, we present the Global Impacts Dataset of Invasive Alien Species (GIDIAS), a dataset on the positive, negative and neutral impacts of invasive alien species on nature, nature’s contributions to people, and good quality of life. This dataset arises from the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services’ (IPBES) thematic assessment report of this topic. Data were compiled from published sources, including grey literature, reporting a direct observation of an invasive alien species’ impact. All impact records contain up to 52 fields of contextual information and attempt to link impacts to the global standard “environmental impact classification for alien taxa” (EICAT) and “socio-economic impact classification for alien taxa” (SEICAT). GIDIAS includes more than 22000 records of impacts caused by 3353 invasive alien species (plants, vertebrates, invertebrates, microorganisms) from all continents and realms (terrestrial, freshwater, marine), extracted from over 6700 sources. We intend GIDIAS to be a global resource for investigating and managing the variety of impacts of invasive alien species across taxa and regions.

Green M, Barnes BF, Gandhi KJK, Pienaar EF (2025) Examining park users’ support for emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) control in urban parks. Conservation Science and Practice 7(5): e70018.

Abstract: Emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmare; EAB) is a woodboring beetle that is considered one of the most damaging invasive forest insects in North America, causing near complete mortality of native ash (Fraxinus spp.) trees across multiple states. Management options include both biological control using parasitoid wasps from EAB’s native range, and chemical control with systemic insecticides. Although both strategies are being used to control EAB, the public’s support for these methods is not well understood. In 2023, we surveyed 174 urban park users in northeastern Georgia, United States, to identify determinants of their support for EAB control. Most respondents were not previously aware of EAB and ash trees, although they valued the ecosystem services provided by park trees. Respondents were more supportive of biological control than chemical control, perceiving greater ecological and human well-being risks from chemical control. Respondents’ risk perceptions pertaining to control methods and EAB, and their attitudes towards ash trees influenced their support for EAB control. Birdwatchers were less likely to support chemical control and individuals who like to sit and enjoy nature were more likely to support biological control. Our results suggest that park managers’ outreach about EAB control should emphasize the aesthetic appeal and ecosystem services provided by urban ash trees and the invasion impacts of EAB. Outreach should also highlight that EAB control does not pose ecological or human well-being risks, parasitoid wasps help to secure ecosystem function through pest control and do not pose a risk to people, and EAB control will not adversely impact recreational activities within the park.

Pratt EN, Lockwood JL, King EG, Pienaar EF (2025) The challenge of attaining conservation outcomes in a complex system: Agency personnel’s and academic researchers’ perspectives on the wicked problem of the exotic pet trade. NeoBiota 97: 279-199.

Abstract: The exotic pet trade is a wicked problem involving economic, social, political, ethical, and environmental dimensions, which cannot be resolved using conventional management strategies that are informed by restricted expertise. In 2023, we surveyed 26 government agency personnel and 57 academic researchers in the United States who focus on the risks of the exotic pet trade to ascertain how experts characterize the wicked problem of the exotic pet trade and their support for conventional versus collaborative management of the trade. Both academic and agency respondents framed the ecological risks associated with the exotic pet trade similarly, expressing greatest concern about species invasions and pathogen transmission to native species. Respondents exhibited low levels of trust in stakeholders in the exotic pet trade, considering it likely that all stakeholders (except the commercial industry) would fail to comply with pet trade regulations. Agency respondents tended to agree that current regulations have been effective in mitigating invasion risks while academic respondents disagreed that current regulations adequately mitigate the invasion and disease risks of the pet trade or overexploitation of species. Agency respondents were more likely to agree that regulations are enforceable. All respondents were supportive of additional federal regulations of the exotic pet trade. Our findings are consistent with the argument that wicked problems are perpetuated because managers and scientists default to conventional cause-effect problem statements and top-down management approaches that focus on management structure and execution. Transitioning from top-down regulatory approaches to collaborative decision making, in which agencies, scientists, and exotic pet trade stakeholders work together to resolve the wicked problem of the exotic pet trade, would build trust and allow for flexible, adaptive management of the trade.

Pienaar E.F., & Sturgeon D.J.E. (2024) Exotic pet owners’ preferences for different ectothermic taxa are based on species traits and purchase prices in the United States. Neobiota 91: 1-27.

Abstract: The exotic pet trade has resulted in substantial invasion and disease risks, owing to the release of pets into new environments. Scientists have conjectured that pet owners acquire and release species with undesirable traits because they are imperfectly informed about the traits of these animals. However, few studies have used social science methods to elicit pet owners’ preferences for exotic pets. In 2019 we administered a best-worst choice survey to 1,055 exotic pet owners in the United States (who own pet reptiles, amphibians, fish, or invertebrates) to examine how human preferences and incomplete information may contribute to the risks of the exotic pet trade. Respondents preferred colorful and patterned species. On average, respondents preferred medium-sized amphibians and reptiles, small fish, and large invertebrates, although they demonstrated heterogeneity in preferences with respect to the adult size of pets. Respondents also preferred amphibians and reptiles with medium life expectancies and fish and invertebrates with long life expectancies, although they again demonstrated heterogeneity in preferences with respect to pets’ life span. Respondents preferred docile animals, and were more likely to purchase lower-cost pets. We found some evidence that respondents’ decision to purchase exotic pets depended on whether these animals were native, rare, had unusual morphological features, and breed easily. Respondents’ decision to purchase specific taxa as exotic pets also depended on their age, education, and whether they live in houses. Most respondents stated that they searched for information on pets’ diet, behavior, adult size, life span, costs of care such as equipment or veterinarian costs, and whether the animal was captive bred before purchasing these animals. Excepting pets’ diets, less than half of respondents had been offered information on pets’ traits by sellers. On average, respondents rated the information they had been offered as average. Respondents typically obtained additional information about pets from online searches. Our results suggest that certification systems that provide critical information on exotic pets’ behaviors, adult size, longevity, fecundity, and husbandry needs should be implemented to prevent pet owners acquiring animals that they may subsequently abandon.

Pratt E.N., Lockwood J.L., King E.G., & Pienaar E.F. (2023) Identifying inconsistencies in exotic pet regulations that perpetuate trade in risky species. Conservation Biology 38(2): e14189.

Abstract: Regulatory inconsistencies at different jurisdictional levels have contributed to the global expansion of the exotic pet trade, with resultant increases in the spread of invasive species and pathogens. Researchers have enumerated multiple limitations and environmental risks posed by international and national rules that govern the exotic pet trade, yet little attention has been focused on regulation of the exotic pet trade within national borders. We reviewed state-level regulations that apply to the trade of vertebrate animal taxa in the United States (US). Definitions and classifications for regulating different vertebrate taxa varied greatly across states, and the terms ‘pet’ and ‘companion animal’ were poorly defined and inconsistent across states. States implemented regulations that permit trade in exotic vertebrate pets that are banned from import into the US owing to public health and conservation concerns. Once species have been imported into the US, inconsistent internal regulations facilitate movement of animals that pose substantial invasion and disease risks. Violations of state laws were typically listed as misdemeanors, and the median fine for violating state wildlife trade laws was $1,000. Inconsistent and incomplete regulation of exotic vertebrate pets across state borders, in conjunction with limited penalties for violating regulations, has facilitated continued possession of exotic pets in states where these animals are banned. Based on our review of regulatory weaknesses, we conclude that transition to a federally enforced list of vertebrate species that may be traded as pets is needed, with all other vertebrate species banned from the exotic pet trade unless their potential invasion and disease risks have been assessed and demonstrated to be low or nonexistent.

Steele, Z.T., & Pienaar E.F. (2023) Educators' and visitors' perceptions of invasive species education in zoos. Visitor Studies 26(2): 143-159.

Abstract: Management of invasive alien species (IAS) depends on public awareness and cooperation, which may be increased by effective IAS education by zoos. We administered a questionnaire to visitors (n=221) and educators (n=44) at three Association of Zoos and Aquariums facilities in Florida to explore their perceptions of the content and effectiveness of IAS education at these facilities. Most visitors recalled seeing IAS on display, with 80% of visitors stating that they considered zoos to be a place to learn about IAS. Both visitors and educators agreed that minimal information on how IAS are introduced to Florida was presented. They also agreed that greater implementation of shows and presentations pertaining to IAS would be highly effective in educating the public about IAS and the need for actions to mitigate species invasions. Zoos may improve their educational effectiveness by making visitors aware of IAS citizen science programs and implementing interactive educational methods.

Steele, Z.T. & Pienaar, E.F. (2021) Knowledge, reason and emotion: Using behavioral theories to understand people’s support for invasive animal management. Biological Invasions 23: 3513-3527.

Abstract: Species invasions contribute to global environmental change and cause declines in populations of threatened and endangered species. Significant government funds are expended on invasive species management (ISM) actions each year. Public support and compliance are critical to the success of these actions. We conducted a study to assess determinants of the general public’s support for ISM actions to identify potential barriers to ISM. We administered an online questionnaire to the general public (n=1,561) in Florida, a state severely affected by species invasions. We presented respondents with 12 different non-native animals from 4 different taxa (birds, rodents, herpetofauna, fish) to test whether their support for ISM actions depended on the animals to be managed or their perceptions of risk. We utilized structural equation models to explore how different variables directly and indirectly influenced support for management actions. Respondents tended to oppose management actions targeted towards birds and charismatic species. Respondents’ support for government-implemented ISM actions was positively correlated with their awareness of the risks associated with different animals and species invasions in general, their awareness of the consequences of species invasions, and their recognition of the importance of taking actions to mitigate invasion threats. Efforts to promote public support for ISM actions should emphasize the different risks associated with invasive species and the consequences of species invasions to offset opposition to ISM actions that target charismatic species.

Measey, J., C. Wagener, N.P. Mohanty, J. Baxter-Gilbert and E. F. Pienaar (2020) The Cost and Complexity of Assessing Impact. NeoBiota 62: 279-299.

Abstract: The environmental and socio-economic impacts of invasive species have long been recognised to be unequal, with some species being benign while others are disastrous. Until recently there was no recognised standard impact scoring framework with which to compare impacts of species from very different taxa. The advent of the Environmental Impact Classification for Alien Taxa (EICAT) and Socio‐Economic Impact Classification of Alien Taxa (SEICAT) schemes allows for the possibility of assessing impact through a standard approach. However, both these schemes are still in their infancy and the associated costs of the research that informs them is unknown. We aimed to determine the study costs and complexity associated with assessing invasive species’ socio-economic and environmental impacts. We used amphibians as a model group to investigate papers from which EICAT and SEICATscores could be drawn up to 2019. Our analysis shows that studies that resulted in higher impact scores were more costly. Furthermore, the costs of studies were best predicted by their complexity and the time taken to complete them. If impact scores from EICAT and SEICAT are allowed to inform policy, then we need to carefully consider whether species with low scores represent true impact, or require more research investment and time. Policy makers needing accurate assessments will need to finance larger, more complex, and rigorous studies. Assessing impacts in low and middle income countries may need investment using international research collaborations and capacity building with scientists from high income areas.

Episcopio-Sturgeon, D. J. and E. F. Pienaar (2020) Investigating Support for Management of the Pet Trade Invasion Risk. Journal of Wildlife Management 84(6): 1196-1209.

Abstract: The non‐native pet trade contributes directly to species invasions, thereby threatening wildlife. Biological invasions influence environmental change, resulting in species extinctions and biodiversity loss. To mitigate the pet trade invasion risk, interventions are required to prevent trade in non‐native animals with high invasion potential, impulse or ill‐informed purchases of non‐native pets by individuals who may release these animals, and the deliberate release of non‐native animals by pet owners. Interventions are also required to prevent the establishment of non‐native animals that have been released by pet owners (e.g., euthanasia). The successful implementation of these interventions depends on the support of pet owners and the public in the form of political support for, and compliance with, interventions. In 2017–2018, using both mail and online surveys, we measured the support of 1,171 members of the public and 550 owners of non‐native pets in Florida, USA, for 7 different interventions to mitigate the pet trade invasion risk, and we investigated determinants of this support. We found that individuals' support for interventions depended on their concern related to the invasion risks associated with the pet trade, trust in government to manage the pet trade, perceptions of how effective interventions would be in mitigating the pet trade invasion risk, and demographic characteristics. Support for interventions differed across pet owners and the public. Educating pet owners about the traits and cost of care for non‐native animals and providing them with options to relinquish unwanted pets may reduce the pet trade invasion risk. Engaging the pet trade in the design of interventions to mitigate invasion risks is likely important to attain voluntary compliance with these interventions. The effectiveness of interventions also depends on enforcement by agencies. Implementing interventions that effectively reduce the pet trade invasion risk is important to protect native and endangered wildlife.

Episcopio-Sturgeon, D. J. and E. F. Pienaar (2019) Understanding Stakeholders’ Opinions and Preferences for Non-native Pet Trade Management in Florida. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 24(1): 46-60.

Abstract: There is growing recognition of the link between the non-native pet trade and the introduction and establishment of invasive species due to the release and escape of non-native pets. However, it is unclear whether participants in the pet trade recognize the magnitude of this invasion risk. Successful mitigation of the pet trade invasion risk requires stakeholder support for, and participation in, regulations. We conducted 29 interviews in Florida to investigate key stakeholders’ opinions about the pet trade invasion risk and the effectiveness of potential regulations to mitigate this risk. Respondents framed the effectiveness of regulations in terms of their feasibility. Respondents also identified lack of trust and the existence of an adversarial relationship among stakeholder groups as major barriers to managing the pet trade invasion risk. Compliance with regulations may be improved if policy makers and managers utilize participatory decision-making to engage stakeholders in management of this risk.

Lockwood, J. L., D. J. Welbourne, C. Romagosa, P. Cassey, N. E. Mandrak, A. Strecker, B. Leung, O. C. Stringham, B. Udell, D. J. Episcopio-Sturgeon, M. F. Tlusty, J. Sinclair, M. Springborn, E. F. Pienaar, and A. Rhyne (2019) When Pets Become Pests: The Role of the Exotic Pet Trade in Producing Invasive Vertebrate Animals. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 17(6): 323-330.

Abstract: The annual trade in exotic vertebrates as pets is a multi‐billion‐dollar global business. Thousands of species, and tens of millions of individual animals, are shipped both internationally and within countries to satisfy this demand. Most research on the exotic pet trade has focused on its contribution to native biodiversity loss and disease spread. Here, we synthesize information across taxa and research disciplines to document the exotic pet trade's contribution to vertebrate biological invasions. We show recent and substantial worldwide growth in the number of non‐native animal populations introduced via this invasion pathway, which demonstrates a strong potential to increase the number of invasive animals in the future. Key to addressing the invasion threat of exotic pets is learning more about the socioeconomic forces that drive the massive growth in the exotic pet market and the socioecological factors that underlie pet release by owners. These factors likely vary according to cultural pet‐keeping traditions across regions and whether purchases were legal or illegal. These gaps in our understanding of the exotic pet trade must be addressed in order to implement effective policy solutions.

Extension Documents

Hostetler, M., S. M. Wisely, S. Johnson, E. F. Pienaar and M. B. Main (2020) “WEC423/UW468: How Effective and Humane Is Trap-Neuter-Release (TNR) for Feral Cats?” University of Florida Electronic Data Information Source (EDIS), available at: https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw468