Yushan Young Fellow, Taiwan
Top 2% for the Most Influenced Scientists through the World in 2020-2023 by Standford University
Institute of Atomic and Molecular Science, Academia Sinica, Taiwan
Center of Atomic Initiative for New Materials, National Taiwan University
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The Pioneers of Quantum Physics: A Brief History of one of the most successful theories in Modern Physics
Quantum physics is the branch of physics that deals with the behavior and properties of matter and energy at the smallest scales, where the classical laws of physics break down and new phenomena emerge.
In 1900, Max Planck proposed that the energy of electromagnetic radiation, such as light, is not continuous but discrete, meaning that it comes in packets or quanta. He derived a formula, known as Planck’s law, that describes the spectrum of blackbody radiation, which is the radiation emitted by a perfect absorber of heat. Planck’s law was the first quantum theory in physics, and Planck won the Nobel Prize in 1918 “in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta”.
In 1905, Albert Einstein used Planck’s hypothesis to explain the photoelectric effect, which is the emission of electrons from a metal surface when light shines on it. He showed that light behaves as a stream of particles, called photons, whose energy depends on their frequency. Einstein also proposed the special theory of relativity, which relates space and time in a new way and shows that mass and energy are equivalent. Einstein won the Nobel Prize in 1921 “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”.
In 1913, Niels Bohr introduced a quantum model of the atom, in which electrons orbit around a nucleus only at certain distances and can jump between them by absorbing or emitting photons. Bohr also proposed the correspondence principle, which states that quantum phenomena must agree with classical physics in the limit of large numbers. Bohr won the Nobel Prize in 1922 “for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them”.
In 1923, Louis de Broglie suggested that matter, like light, has both particle and wave properties, and that the wavelength of a particle is inversely proportional to its momentum. This idea was confirmed by experiments that showed the diffraction and interference patterns of electrons and other particles.
In 1925, Werner Heisenberg formulated the matrix mechanics, which is a mathematical framework for quantum physics that uses matrices to represent physical quantities and operators. Heisenberg also discovered the uncertainty principle, which states that there is a fundamental limit to how precisely one can measure certain pairs of physical quantities, such as position and momentum. Heisenberg won the Nobel Prize in 1932 “for the creation of quantum mechanics”.
In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger developed the wave mechanics, which is another mathematical framework for quantum physics that uses differential equations to describe the evolution of wave functions. Schrödinger also introduced the concept of superposition, which means that a quantum system can exist in a combination of two or more states until an observation collapses it into one definite state. Schrödinger won the Nobel Prize in 1933 “for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory”.
In 1927, Paul Dirac unified quantum mechanics and special relativity in a single equation, known as the Dirac equation, which describes the behavior of electrons and other spin -1/2 particles. Dirac also predicted the existence of antimatter, which are particles with opposite charge and spin to their normal counterparts. Dirac won the Nobel Prize in 1933 “for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory”.
In 1928, Wolfgang Pauli proposed the exclusion principle, which states that no two identical fermions (such as electrons) can occupy the same quantum state in an atom or a molecule. Pauli also introduced the concept of spin, which is a quantum property that gives particles a magnetic moment. Pauli won the Nobel Prize in 1945 “for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle”.
In 1935, Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen published a paper that challenged the completeness and consistency of quantum mechanics. They proposed a thought experiment, known as the EPR paradox, that involved two entangled particles that share a quantum state and can affect each other instantaneously over any distance. They argued that this implied either hidden variables or spooky action at a distance, both of which contradicted classical physics.
In 1948, Richard Feynman developed a graphical method for calculating quantum effects using diagrams that represent interactions between particles and fields. These diagrams are called Feynman diagrams and are widely used in quantum field theory and particle physics. Feynman also contributed to the development of quantum electrodynamics (QED), which is a quantum theory of electromagnetism that explains phenomena such as light scattering and electron-positron annihilation. Feynman won the Nobel Prize in 1965 “for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics”.
Source: Internet
Nobel Prize in Physics (2023)
Alain Aspect, John Clauser and Anton Zeilinger have each conducted groundbreaking experiments using entangled quantum states, where two particles behave like a single unit even when they are separated. Their results have cleared the way for new technology based upon quantum information.
The ineffable effects of quantum mechanics are starting to find applications. There is now a large field of research that includes quantum computers, quantum networks and secure quantum encrypted communication.
One key factor in this development is how quantum mechanics allows two or more particles to exist in what is called an entangled state. What happens to one of the particles in an entangled pair determines what happens to the other particle, even if they are far apart.
For a long time, the question was whether the correlation was because the particles in an entangled pair contained hidden variables, instructions that tell them which result they should give in an experiment. In the 1960s, John Stewart Bell developed the mathematical inequality that is named after him. This states that if there are hidden variables, the correlation between the results of a large number of measurements will never exceed a certain value. However, quantum mechanics predicts that a certain type of experiment will violate Bell’s inequality, thus resulting in a stronger correlation than would otherwise be possible.
John Clauser developed John Bell’s ideas, leading to a practical experiment. When he took the measurements, they supported quantum mechanics by clearly violating a Bell inequality. This means that quantum mechanics cannot be replaced by a theory that uses hidden variables.
Some loopholes remained after John Clauser’s experiment. Alain Aspect developed the setup, using it in a way that closed an important loophole. He was able to switch the measurement settings after an entangled pair had left its source, so the setting that existed when they were emitted could not affect the result.
Using refined tools and long series of experiments, Anton Zeilinger started to use entangled quantum states. Among other things, his research group has demonstrated a phenomenon called quantum teleportation, which makes it possible to move a quantum state from one particle to one at a distance.
“It has become increasingly clear that a new kind of quantum technology is emerging. We can see that the laureates’ work with entangled states is of great importance, even beyond the fundamental questions about the interpretation of quantum mechanics,” says Anders Irbäck, Chair of the Nobel Committee for Physics. (Press release: https://bit.ly/3BLf9gK)
Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2023) for Quantum Dot inventors !! Amazing to see both Prof.Louis Brus and his former postdoc Prof. Moungi G. Bawendi got Nobel prize together with Prof. Ekimov !!
For decades, quantum phenomena in the nanoworld were just a prediction. When 2023 Nobel Prize laureates in chemistry Alexei Ekimov and Louis Brus produced the first quantum dots, scientists already knew that they could – in theory – have unusual characteristics. However, few people thought quantum effects could be utilised.
During his doctoral degree, Ekimov studied semiconductors – important components in microelectronics. In this field, optical methods are used as diagnostic tools for assessing the quality of semiconducting material. Researchers shine light on the material and measure the absorbance. This reveals what substances the material is made from and how well-ordered the crystal structure is.
Ekimov was familiar with these methods, so he began using them to examine coloured glass. After some initial experiments, he decided to systematically produce glass that was tinted with copper chloride. He heated the molten glass to a range of temperatures between 500°C and 700°C, varying the heating time from 1 hour to 96 hours. Once the glass had cooled and hardened, he X-rayed it. The scattered rays showed that tiny crystals of copper chloride had formed inside the glass and the manufacturing process affected the size of these particles. In some of the glass samples they were only about two nanometres, in others they were up to 30 nanometres.
Interestingly, it turned out that the glass’ light absorption was affected by the size of the particles. The biggest particles absorbed the light in the same way that copper chloride normally does, but the smaller the particles, the bluer the light that they absorbed. As a physicist, Ekimov was well acquainted with the laws of quantum mechanics and quickly realised that he had observed a size- dependent quantum effect (see illustration).
This was the first time someone had succeeded in deliberately producing quantum dots – nanoparticles that cause size-dependent quantum effects. In 1981, Ekimov published his discovery in a Soviet scientific journal, but this was difficult for researchers on the other side of the Iron Curtain to access. Therefore, this year’s next chemistry laureate – Louis Brus – was unaware of Alexei Ekimov’s discovery when, in 1983, he was the first researcher in the world to discover size-dependent quantum effects in particles floating freely in a solution.
The 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry has been awarded to Moungi G. Bawendi, Louis E. Brus and Alexei I. Ekimov “for the discovery and synthesis of quantum dots.”
Fun Story in Research Career
The entire observable universe is squeezed into one image. (logarithmic view)