Below, you will find a video of Miss Lou talking about Jamaican proverbs in Patwa (a Jamaican dialect), as well as a video on Haitian proverbs.

Social Functions

In everyday conversations, proverbs are used to emphasize points, add depth to arguments, and convey complex ideas succinctly. They serve as a tool for effective communication. During disputes, proverbs are employed to calm tensions, provide neutral perspectives, and guide conflicting parties towards reconciliation. They act as a form of persuasive rhetoric that can deescalate conflicts.

Vehicles for Humor in African Novels

Proverbs, especially vulgar ones and wellerisms, elicit laughter by interacting with cultural and linguistic codes. Themes of black humor and wellerism within proverbs reflect deeper societal truths by providing a cynical or skeptical take on serious subjects. The  humorous aspects of proverbs in African literature are essential for understanding the deeper cultural and psychological layers of the texts, enriching narratives by deepening engagement with the cultural context. Certain examples illustrate how proverbs humorously critique socio-political realities, social injustices, and personal responsibilities.: 

• "Devil on the Cross" by Ngugi wa Thiong'o – "Don’t be choicy, eat what is available" - Mwaura critiques social and moral flexibility, using the hyena as a metaphor for opportunism in a corrupt society.);

• "The Crippled Dancer" by T. Obinkaram Echewa ("There is a saying that the poor man eats his crusty overnight fufu and his soup has no fish; and the rich man soup is full of meat and fish. However, when they both go to the latrine, the rich man’s shit does not smell any better than the poor man’s." humorously underscores the inherent equality of all people, regardless of wealth, in terms of basic human functions.);

•  and "Arrow of God" by Chinua Achebe ("He who will swallow udala seeds must consider the size of his anus" - Obika humorous yet stark reminder of the consequences of one's actions, particularly highlighting the imprudence of taking on more than one can handle.) 

These proverbs serve multiple cultural and social functions, including social critique, cultural expression, and psychological relief, allowing writers to discuss taboo or sensitive topics indirectly while providing a coping mechanism for readers.

Read: Visiting Humorous Proverbs in African Literary Fiction," Youssoupha Mané

Cultural Significance

Proverbs are a key medium for transmitting cultural values, beliefs, and norms from one generation to the next. They encapsulate the wisdom and experiences of the ancestors, ensuring that cultural heritage is preserved. They often carry moral lessons and ethical guidelines, helping individuals to discern right from wrong and encouraging proper conduct within the community.

• Advice: "Owo omode ko to pepe, t’agbalagba o wo keregbe" (A child's hand cannot reach the shelf, just as an elder’s hand cannot enter a gourd), akin to advice on limitations and respect for different capabilities in ancient Israel.

• Warning: "Aja to ma sonu, kii gbo fere olode" (A dog destined to get lost will not hear the hunter's whistle), similar to warnings in Biblical proverbs about ignoring divine or wise instructions.

• Encouragement: "Owe lesin oro, bi oro ba sonu, owe ni a fi nwa a" (Proverbs are the horse of conversation, they bring back lost truths), similar to Biblical encouragements to seek wisdom and truth.

Proverbs reflect universal values and societal norms, such as respect for the elderly, community cohesion, and the importance of wisdom and moral behavior, thus serving as a cultural bridge between countries and contemporary Africa. The deep cultural significance of proverbs underscore their roles in education, moral instruction, and the preservation of history and cultural identity. For instance, the Yoruba proverb "Bi oro ba sonu, owe ni a fi nwa" (When truth is missing, we use proverbs to find it) mirrors the role of proverbs in ancient Israel as tools for addressing and solving problems through wise sayings.  Some examples from the Yoruba:

1. Orisa ti ngbe ole ko si, nitori apa eni ni gbe 'ni.  

• Translation: "There are no gods who support an unaccomplished man in his laziness; a man’s greatest support is his own arm."  

•  Context: This proverb is used to encourage personal responsibility and hard work.

2. Ibinu ko se nkan, suru ni baba iwa. 

• Translation: "Anger does not accomplish anything; patience is the chief virtue."  

• Context: This is an admonishment against quick temper and an encouragement to cultivate patience.

3. Bi owe bi owe ni a nlu ilu ogidigbo, ologbon ni njo o, omoran ni sin mo o.  

• Translation: "The ogidigbo talking drum is sounded in proverbs, only the wise can dance it, and only the experienced can understand it."  

• Context: This proverb emphasizes the importance of wisdom and experience in understanding complex situations.

4. Aja ki iroro ko so ojule meji.  

• Translation: "A dog cannot be so fierce as to keep watch over two gates at once."  

• Context: This serves as a reproach against taking on more responsibilities than one can manage, emphasizing the importance of focus.

5. Bi omode fe sise agba, ojo a bi ko ni je.

• Translation: "If a young child wants to behave like an elderly man, the date of his birth will not allow it."  

• Context: This proverb warns against the folly of youth trying to overstep boundaries set by age and experience.

Some examples of Otukpo proverbs include 

• "Better spill the water than break the pot," which warns to prioritize actions without causing significant harm;

• A fowl in a new environment hangs one leg up while surveying the place," advising caution in unfamiliar situations;

• The forest which boasts of a leopard cannot say it has no animal" praises outstanding achievements; and

• "When you bend down to look into another person’s anus, do not forget that your own anus will become exposed" cautions against being overly critical of others. 

Read: "Ancient Israelite and African Proverbs as Advice, Reproach, Warning, Encouragement, and Explanation," David T. Adamo 

Below are 4 case studies of proverbial usage among the Anang people of southeastern Nigeria that lead to different outcomes dependent on the (im)proper usage. 

Case Study 1: Chronic Thief Accused of Robbery

A known thief was accused of robbery.

Proverbs Used:

• Plaintiff: If a dog plucks palm fruits from a cluster, he does not fear a porcupine. This proverb implied that the accused, being a known thief, was naturally the suspect.

• Defendant: A single partridge flying through the bush leaves no path. The defendant used this to suggest his innocence, likening himself to a solitary bird leaving no trace.

Outcome: Acquitted – Initially, the court and the audience leaned towards the plaintiff's view due to the defendant's known history. However, the defendant's proverb swayed the judges, leading to his acquittal.

Case Study 2: Assault with a Machete

A man accused a former friend of attacking him with a machete.

Proverbs Used:

• Plaintiff: Something happened to the smoke which caused it to enter the bush and become mist. This suggested that the plaintiff, despite his reluctance, was forced to bring the case due to the severity of the attack.

• Defendant: A leopard conceals his spots. The defendant used this to suggest that the plaintiff was hiding his true malicious intentions under a guise of friendship.

Outcome: Acquitted – The court demanded that the plaintiff and his witnesses swear oaths. When they refused, indicating fear of the spiritual consequences of lying, the court ruled in favor of the defendant.

Case Study 3: Boy Accused of Impregnating an Unmarried Girl

A boy was accused of impregnating a girl who denied involvement with another accused man.

Proverbs Used:

• Boy’s Father: The nsasak said she was ashamed of the small size of her offspring. This indicated the father's shame and lack of faith in his son's innocence.

• Girl’s Father: The ekonuk tried to eat as much as the okon and his stomach burst. This suggested the boy was attempting something beyond his capacity, leading to his conviction.

Outcome: Convicted – The court, influenced by the girl's father's proverb and the boy's father's lack of support, ruled against the boy.

Case Study 4: Misuse of a Proverb Leading to Conviction

A man accused of being an accessory to theft.

Proverbs Used:

• Witness for Plaintiff: When the fire burned the dog, it also burned the hunter holding the rope attached to the neck of the dog. This implied the accused was implicated by association.

• Defendant: The snail is bleeding. The defendant used this proverb incorrectly, as snails do not bleed, suggesting an inability to assert innocence convincingly.

• Defendant: Overeating destroys the soul. Used inappropriately, it consolidated the judges' belief in his guilt.

• Defendant (Post-Conviction): The crayfish is bent because it is sick. This proverb was used to justify his actions as beyond his control.

Outcome: Convicted – The misuse of proverbs by the defendant led to his conviction.

Read: "The role of proverbs in a Nigerian judicial system." by Messenger Jr, John C. 

Educational Value

Proverbs are used as educational tools to teach young people about their history, traditions, and expected behavior. They are integrated into storytelling, songs, and other forms of oral instruction.

Colonial Period

Proverbs were used as a form of covert resistance against oppressors. They were used to communicate among themselves in a manner that was not always understandable to their enslavers, embedding messages of resistance and survival. They also served to maintain a sense of identity and continuity with their African heritage. 

Proverbs were a crucial aspect of slave folklore and a means to understand slave thought and culture, underscoring their resilience, ingenuity, and reflective nature of the slave community, highlighting the proverbs as a rich source of cultural expression and wisdom.

• Proverbs provided slaves with a vehicle for verbal indirection, allowing them to express taboo ideas covertly under the watchful eyes of their masters. The formal traits of proverbs, such as figurative language and poetic phrasing, made them an attractive and safe means to convey experiential wisdom and critique their social conditions.

  • You will reap what you sow, that you sow it singly and reap it doubly: This proverb, while used by a master to admonish slaves, was interpreted by slaves as a commentary on the eventual fate of the slaveholding system.

  • Dem w'at knows too much sleeps under de hopper: This proverb implies the danger of revealing too much information.

  • Old rabbit walks in de paf when de snow done fell reflects the wisdom of caution and experience, often depicted in trickster tales.

• Slave proverbs are noted for their striking imagery, often derived from the familiar aspects of the slaves' daily lives, such as farming, animals, and food. This concrete imagery was crucial for the slaves, who required immediately perceivable solutions to their problems, contrasting with the abstract thinking promoted by the leisure of the slaveholding class.

  • Settin' hens don't haker ater fresh aigs – This proverb uses natural imagery to suggest moderation and acceptance of one’s current situation.

  • Good luck say: 'Open you' mouf 'en shet you' eyes' – Personification of abstract concepts was common, adding a layer of objectivity and enhancing dramatic effect.

  • Rabbit know a fox trap same as a houn' uses animal behavior to impart wisdom about awareness and caution.

• Slave proverbs encapsulated essential themes such as moral and ethical behavior, skepticism, and the transitory nature of status. They provided internal group control, realistic worldviews, and a means to cope with the oppressive slave system.

  • Mole don't see w'at his naber doin'," "Tattlin' 'oman can't make de bread rise – These proverbs emphasized the values of secrecy and discretion.

  • It was easier to stand when the stomach was full – This proverb reflects the moral justification for stealing food as a means of survival.

  • Tomorrow may be de carridge-driver's day for ploughing – Highlights the transitory nature of status, reminding slaves of the potential for change.

  • Moon may shine, but a lightered knot's mighty handy – indicates the importance of practical solutions over hopeful promises.

  • Jay-bird don't rob his own nes' – distinguishes between stealing from fellow slaves and taking from the masters.

In contemporary settings, proverbs continue to function as carriers of cultural identity and wisdom but also face challenges due to globalization and cultural assimilation. They may also serve to challenge existing power structures or reinforce community solidarity in the face of social and economic changes.

Proverbs and adages contribute to modern business practices by informing management philosophies. 

• Proverbs and adages play a crucial role in passing down wisdom, highlighting values such as honesty, perseverance, and community support.

  • Eni to gbin ogorun ebe, to ni oun ghin igba, to ba je ogorun isu tan, aa je ogorun iro – meaning if someone claims to have planted more than they did, they will have to eat lies once their real produce is finished.

  • B’o pe titi, akololo a pe baba – even if it takes a long time, perseverance will yield positive results.

  • E je ka pajuba sile de isu olo; e je k’a je oruko to dun sile d’omo – live in a way that leaves a good name and legacy for future generations.

Below, you will find a video of a song by a Jamaican-American singer and member of the Rastafari movement named Tarrus Riley speaking on the importance of Jamaican Proverb. The lyrics suggest that the words that our ancestors, like your mother, father, and grandparents say are never wrong as they have been passed down for generations and have been the philosophies and teachings that have kept his family alive well.

Identity, Power, Freedom, and Culture

Above, you will see a video featuring Hausa Proverbs from the African Proverbs Project from the African Studies Centre in Boston University, as well as the further information from the webpage. The project entailed collecting short performances by African theater troupes in their local languages. These languages include Wolof from Senegal, Hausa from Niger, Amharic from Ethiopia, Xhosa and Zulu from South Africa and Swahili from Tanzania. Each improvisation focuses on one of ten common proverbs, performed in an authentic cultural and social context.

Lack of Black Authority

Historically, law has been a tool for social control in the United States. "Slave Executions in the United States: A Descriptive Analysis of Social and Historical Factors examines how the dominant white population historically utilized the criminal justice system to maintain social and economic dominance over nonwhite minorities. This dynamic of intergroup domination and oppression through institutional apparatuses, such as the legal system, has significant implications when discussing proverbs and their limitations, particularly the lack of Black authority in this context.

Proverbs often originate from the dominant culture, embedding the values, norms, and perspectives of that group. In a society where the dominant culture has systematically suppressed and controlled minority groups, the proverbs that gain prominence and authority are likely to reflect the dominant group's worldview. This results in a lack of representation of Black perspectives and experiences in the widely accepted body of proverbial wisdom.

As Aguirre Jr. and Baker explain, the criminal justice system and other institutional apparatuses have historically been used to maintain the dominance of the white population over nonwhite minorities. This systemic suppression extends to cultural expressions, including proverbs. The lack of Black authority in proverbs can be seen as a reflection of broader social dynamics where Black voices and cultural contributions have been marginalized and suppressed.

Proverbs from the dominant culture are often validated and legitimized through their repeated use in education, literature, and everyday discourse. This process of legitimization further entrenches the authority of these proverbs, marginalizing alternative proverbial wisdom that may arise from Black or other minority cultures. The systemic marginalization described by Aguirre Jr. and Baker means that Black proverbs and the authority they carry are less likely to be recognized and valued in the broader societal context.

The historical context of intergroup domination, as outlined in the article, suggests a continuity of control and suppression that extends to cultural expressions. Black proverbs may struggle to gain authority and recognition because they are situated within a historical framework of oppression and control by the dominant group. This historical context shapes the social and cultural landscape in which proverbs are shared, valued, and passed down, leading to a perpetuation of the lack of Black authority in this realm.

Absence of Female Voices 

A notable theme is the utilization of  African proverbs that reveal societal attitudes towards women, depicting them as morally inferior or dangerous. These cultural expressions are part of patriarchal tools that perpetuate gender inequality contributing to a framework that imposes stricter moral codes on women compared to men.

• Gender Bias in Proverbs: Many proverbs reflect gender biases, often depicting women as morally inferior or dangerous. Proverbs often warn women to be of good behavior, while there are fewer equivalent sayings aimed at men.

  • A Fulani proverb from Senegal says, "Woman is fire. If you have to, take a little," implying that women are dangerous like fire; 

• Moral Expectations for Women: Proverbs are used to enforce moral expectations on women. Such sayings place a huge disparity between how society views the morality of women and men.

  • The Yoruba say, "Obìnrin sọ ̀‘wà nù, ó l’óun kò m’órí oḳo ̣ w’áyé" (meaning, when a woman lacks good character, she would blame her misfortune of not having a husband on her destiny).

Akan Proverbs

The Akan are part of the Kwa group primary living in Ghana and in parts of Ivory Coast and Togo in West Africa.

• Subgroups: the Agona, Akuapem, Akwamu, Akyem, Anyi, Ashanti, Baoulé, Bono, Chakosi, Fante, Kwahu, Sefwi, Wassa, Ahanta, and Nzema, among others.

A brief history of Akan migration and where the groups reside is provided below:

Since proverbs and adages are context-dependent, each of the proverbs collected for Akan have been divided into 7 sub-categories dependent on the context and situation in which they  occur: Songs/Verses; Court Proceedings/Occurrences; Sermons; Monologues; Chats/Conversations; Games/Competitions; and Objects that represent proverbs.

#2. Court Proceedings 

Yoruba Proverbs

Yoruba are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo – collectively referred to as Yorubaland. Yoruba consists of more than 48 million people in Africa, over a million outside Africa, and further representation among members of the African diaspora., comprising 20.7% of Nigeria’s population – one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa

Below is a transcript of 150 Yoruba Proverbs that have been translated and annotated by a Nigerian author from Osun:

According to the Yoruba historian Samuel Johnson, Oriki expresses what a child is or what he or she is hoped to become. These songs are heavy on proverbial usage. Some samples:

• add in oriki is also utilized by every Yoruba child as they're gifted with the (drum?) at birth. hence, the proverbial transmission is very relevant. 

Proverb Contest

It is commonplace to find individuals competing for their knowledge of proverbs. Some examples are attached below. for further samples, look to (link to individuals' YouTube channel)

Reasoning for Criminalization

The criminalization of expression, particularly through anti-literacy laws, was a strategic effort to control and suppress the African American population in the US and the Caribbean. In the US, literacy among enslaved people posed a direct threat to the institution of slavery, as educated enslaved individuals like Frederick Douglass used their skills to advocate for freedom and educate others. Major revolts, such as the Stono Rebellion in 1739 and Nat Turner’s Rebellion in 1831, heightened white slaveholders' fears of organized resistance. Consequently, laws like the Negro Act of 1740 and Virginia's 1832 anti-literacy law were enacted to prevent enslaved people from learning to read and write, aiming to stifle their ability to communicate and organize. These laws, reflecting the insecurities of the white ruling class, included prohibitions on assembling, growing food, earning money, and literacy. Despite these measures, many enslaved people continued to learn covertly, demonstrating the impracticality of completely barring literacy. In the Caribbean, similar efforts were undertaken to maintain control over the enslaved population. However, the Caribbean context also involved a more extensive system of laws and practices aimed at preserving the economic benefits of slavery while preventing potential insurrections. By criminalizing literacy and restricting education, both regions sought to maintain the social and economic hierarchies that underpinned slavery, using legal means to suppress the intellectual and social advancement of enslaved people.

The Carribean

Understanding the criminalization of expression in the Caribbean requires acknowledging that it does not occur in a vacuum but is deeply rooted in historical contexts. The Caribbean region is particularly important to study due to the limited information available, and efforts are ongoing to build a comprehensive database on this issue. The Caribbean has a complex history of colonization by European powers such as Britain, France, Spain, and the Netherlands. Colonial rulers implemented laws and regulations to suppress dissent and maintain control over the local population, laying the groundwork for contemporary restrictions on expression. After gaining independence, many Caribbean nations retained and adapted these colonial laws to address new political realities, leading to the current legal frameworks that continue to shape how freedom of expression is regulated and, at times, criminalized in the region.

Historical Context

Laws and Legislations During Colonial Times

• Ordenações Filipinas: This set of civil laws dating back to the colonial period continued to influence legal practices in Brazil even after its independence. It established a tutelary regime where Indigenous prisoners were placed under the responsibility of Orphans’ Court judges. These judges ensured the tutelage of the natives to those willing to pay wages or marry the "protected" in exchange for their labor​​.

• Decree 426 (1845): Known as the Regulation of the Missions, this decree created an administrative and bureaucratic structure to manage state-run indigenous villages (aldeamentos) together with Catholic missionaries responsible for Christian instruction. This decree reinforced policies aimed at containing the indigenous population within these villages and was part of broader efforts to bind Brazil to Eurocentric ideals of civilization and modernity​​.

• Carta Régia of 1808: This royal charter from 1808 played a significant role in the administration of colonial territories and influenced legal and administrative practices in Brazil during the colonial period​​.

• Law of October 27, 1831: This law granted freedom to enslaved prisoners of war, implying the abolition of indigenous slavery. It was part of broader legislative efforts to signal Brazil's commitment to ending the slave trade, although it was largely ineffective in practice due to lack of enforcement​​.

Additional Act of 1834: This act restructured provincial councils into Provincial Legislative Assemblies, which were responsible for promoting the catechesis and civilization of indigenous peoples. It allowed provinces to take more aggressive initiatives against indigenous populations until the establishment of national policies​​.

Despite the 1831 law's aim to end indigenous slavery, it was largely ineffective, and indigenous slavery continued in disguised forms throughout the nineteenth century. The law also sought to align Brazil with European partners by signaling a commitment to ending the slave trade​​. The continued reference to the Ordenações Filipinas after Brazilian independence highlights the enduring influence of European colonial laws on local legal and administrative practices. This set of laws governed various aspects of life in colonial Brazil, including the management of indigenous populations​​. The Regulation of the Missions in 1845 established a system where Catholic missionaries played a significant role in converting and controlling indigenous populations within state-run villages. This regulation exemplified the integration of religious and administrative control to further colonial objectives​​.

Further Reference

"The Black Codes of the South" Review by Louis R. Harlan

• Examination of State Codes:

  • Wilson provides a state-by-state analysis of the Black Codes, showing how they varied widely in their provisions and implementation. For instance, the codes in South Carolina included both harsh measures like whipping and confinement and protective features like limited due process rights.

• Northern Interpretations:

  • Wilson critiques northern reports on the Black Codes, suggesting that journalists like Benjamin C. Truman, who were considered unbiased, also contributed to the misinterpretation of the codes' intentions and effects.

The United States of America

Illegal to Read

Connecticut, Georgia, Missouri, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Virginia.

"Whereas the teaching of slaves to read and write, has a tendency to . . . produce insurrection and rebellion . . . any free person who shall hereafter teach or attempt to teach any slave within this state to read or write . . . shall be liable to indictment." – North Carolina Slave Code, 1831

In the North and West, many states declined to fund Black education and barred Black students from attending public schools. Some enslaved African Americans secretly attended schools run by Black educators. Adults often raised funds for these schools and their teachers, sometimes through churches or other Black-owned institutions. One of the earliest Black schools was New York's Free African School, founded in 1787. Nearly a century later, the African American School in Gay Head was established.

Illegal to Gather

Alabama, District of Columbia, Georgia, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia 

"It shall not be lawful for more than five male slaves, either with or without passes, to assemble together at any place off the proper plantation to which they belong." – Alabama Slave Code, 1833

Covert Methods of Learning to Read & Write

There are several accounts that illustrate the severe obstacles and punishments enslaved people faced in their pursuit of literacy, underscoring their resilience and resistance against the institution of slavery.

• James Fisher: In 1843, Fisher from Nashville learned to write by copying scraps of writing. An old man later taught him the alphabet for money. When his mistress discovered his materials, her father threatened severe punishment.

• James Curry: Curry's narrative, published in The Liberator in 1840, describes his efforts to learn to read with help from his master's son and a spelling book. Despite being forbidden, Curry continued secretly and learned from borrowed books, finding solace in religious texts.

• Janet Duitsman (1983): Duitsman recounts the severe punishments enslaved African Americans faced for literacy, including whipping and amputation. Though no one in her study experienced these directly, the threat was real. For example, Doc Daniel Dowdy from Georgia described escalating punishments, culminating in amputation.

• Henry Nix and Lizzie Williams: Nix's uncle had a finger amputated for trying to read, and Williams told of a woman severely punished for literacy.

• C. H. Hall: Hall's master discouraged him from reading, associating literacy with rebellion.

• William Bibb: Bibb described a Sabbath school taught by Miss Davis, a poor white girl, which was shut down by owners fearing an "incendiary movement."

• William Grimes: Grimes used literacy to document his history and fight against slavery, representing a rebellious stance among field hands.

• Harriet Jacobs: In her autobiography, Jacobs preferred poverty over the life of a slave, highlighting the psychological torment and lack of dignity faced by enslaved women.

• Frederick Douglass: Douglass described his early literacy lessons from Mrs. Auld, which were halted by Mr. Auld, who believed that literacy would make enslaved people "discontented and unhappy." This revelation inspired Douglass to pursue literacy as a pathway to freedom, despite the difficulties.

Notable Anti-Literacy Laws

• South Carolina Act of 1740 (Negro Act): Passed following the Stono Rebellion to solidify the institution of slavery and limit the freedoms of enslaved people. It explicitly prohibited enslaved people from learning to read and write, among other severe restrictions. "An Act for the Better Ordering and Governing Negroes and Other Slaves in this Province."

  • This act is an extensive document encompassing numerous sections, each detailing various restrictions and legal justifications for the harsh treatment of enslaved African Americans.

• Virginia Revised Code of 1819: This code included specific anti-literacy provisions among other restrictions. It was designed to tighten control over the enslaved population following Nat Turner’s Rebellion. Enslaved people were prohibited from assembling and being taught to read or write under this code.

  • It illustrates the legislative response to slave uprisings and the perceived threat of educated slaves.

• Alabama Slave Code of 1833: Following Nat Turner's Rebellion, Alabama passed a code with a provision that fined anyone who taught enslaved people or free people of color to read or write. "Any person who shall attempt to teach any free person of color, or slave, to spell, read or write, shall, upon conviction thereof by indictment, be fined in a sum not less than two hundred fifty dollars, nor more than five hundred dollars."

  • This law reflects the heightened fear among white slaveholders of literate enslaved individuals organizing revolts.

• Georgia Anti-Literacy Law of 1833: This measure went further than many other states by not only punishing those who taught literacy but also restricting free blacks from obtaining work requiring literacy. Passed in the wake of Nat Turner’s Rebellion, the law was part of a broader set of restrictions targeting the educational opportunities of African Americans.

  • It highlights the extent to which Southern states went to suppress the potential for organized resistance and maintain the status quo of slavery. 

Notable Cases/Trials 

These cases highlight the extreme measures taken to prevent literacy among enslaved people and the severe punishments imposed on those who sought to learn, illustrating the resilience and resistance of enslaved individuals against the institution of slavery.

• New York Slave Revolt Trials (1712): Following the 1712 revolt, 27 enslaved individuals were tried; 21 were convicted and executed. The colonial governor, Robert Hunter, described the brutality of the punishments, intended to deter future revolts.

• South Carolina Negro Act (1740): Passed after the Stono Rebellion, this act prohibited enslaved people from learning to read and write, serving as a legal framework to control the enslaved population and prevent organized revolts.

• Denmark Vesey Conspiracy (1822): Charleston's Mayor Hamilton established a special court to swiftly adjudicate and punish those involved in Vesey's conspiracy. This court operated outside standard legal norms, reflecting the extreme measures taken to suppress slave rebellions.

• Nat Turner's Rebellion and Subsequent Trials (1831): After Turner's Rebellion, Turner was captured, tried, and executed. The trials of many associates lasted months, highlighting the fear of literate enslaved people and resulting in stricter anti-literacy laws.

• Virginia Legislative Session (1831-1832): In response to Nat Turner's Rebellion, the Virginia legislature debated and enacted new laws, including significant anti-literacy measures, demonstrating the heightened legislative response to the threat of slave rebellions.

In the book Wit and wisdom from West Africa; or, A book of proverbial philosophy, idioms, enigmas, and laconisms we see what becomes when proverbs are absent in the Black Trans-Atlantic context:

“The absence of poetry and the cultivated mind with hyperbolic lyrical songs and destroyed decorum in language has resulted in the massiveness and bulkiness of languages, causing the weakness in the intellect of the native." (Burton 1969, xiii)

• The reduced influence of proverbs has resulted in the idea that these cultures have cultivated minds. The absence of knowledge of the wisdom these places and cultures hold results in shifted power dynamics in the world where those who benefitted from its wisdom can no longer attain it anymore.

• The book like most other Black trans-Atlantic proverb books and archives are used to counter-archive the knowledge that was lacking due to the prevalence of raw speech.

When literature and stories are translated and produced by foreigners, the vernacular literature can be distorted and misrepresented. (Burton 1969, xiv)

• Absence in the meanings as the language translation can distort the proverbs and change the meanings. Bad translations cause an absence of correct proverbial knowledge being transferred and spread to other people which can impact its effectiveness and can shift the goals of the proverbs.

• There is a general absence of meaning and translation even between the giver and the receiver in the same language as there is need to interpret ones own meaning from the general statement as well.

A second problem is that we do not have the kind of contextual information that would give us a clearer sense of two individuals interacting with each other.

• There is archival limitations when looking at the fact that all this research is done using primary and secondary sources that have the proverbs written down rather than gathered firsthand.

• This means that there are translation issues and one cannot gather the right inflections and other sensoria from a written page, creating an absence of depth when researching and understanding proverbs from this perspective.

______________

In Anand Prahlad's book Reggae Wisdom: Proverbs in Jamaican Music, Prahlad provides fieldwork in Jamaica where he saw the accounts of proverbs in everyday life as well as in music

• "Looking at proverbs in reggae poses different kinds of problems from those I encountered in my study of African American proverbs. There are no person-to-person speech acts, per se, but rather recordings and in some cases live performances of songs in which proverbs are used. The proverb lives as a part of a performed sound event in which the actual speaker is not so significant as the persona being employed in the song. Thus the levels of proverb meaning are more restricted in this study." (Prahlad 2001, 2)

• The depth and understanding of proverbs cannot be fully comprehended due to the use of written proverbs rather than the speech acts that use proverbs. However, this provides an alternate form of proverb used outside of written text as it is seen within music lyrics.

Examples of proverbial expressions found in African American blues music and in reggae that while used in both styles would carry different meanings based on the music and the audience that it captures (Prahlad 2001, 3).

• You reap what you sow

• A rolling stone gathers no moss 

• You never miss your water until your well runs dry 

• The blacker the berry the sweeter the juice 

• Don't bite the hand that feeds you 

• Seeing is believing 

• Possible origins of these proverbs used in reggae include African, English, biblical, American, traditional Jamaican, and Rastafari as well as phrases invented by given lyricists.

"One should know and not believe" (Prahlad 2001, 13)

• Meaning: To believe implies a false knowledge. Believers are those who have been brainwashed by Western institutions that distort history by omitting the African's contribution and misrepresent religious ideas in order continually to subjugate the oppressed.

• It represents the absence of African presence within the telling and sharing of African proverbs leading to a false narrative that is told about their cultures, religions, and ways of life.

"These conversations [interviews with Jamaicans] confirmed my theory that certain people tend to use proverbs regularly, while others seldom use them at all" (Prahlad 2001, 76) Used in everyday conversations, Prahlad in his fieldwork in Jamaica found its usage in most conversations.

• E.g. After a while, Frazer seemed to sense my discomfort and began talking about how beautiful some of the women were. At the same time, he noted, they were snobbish and pampered. "See, Not everything that glitters is gold," he said.

• E.g. “You can't stop bird from flying over your head, but you can stop him from building a nest.” He explained that the proverb was used by a woman in response to other women showing interest in men.

Transcriptions of interviews with ex-enslaved people or their direct descendants are another source of proverbial speech that can be seen in African-American proverbs in context that show how there is an absence of reliable sources and absence of substantive understanding of their philosophy as those proverbs that are collected could have been chosen to fit a theme or has an ulterior purpose (Prahlad 1996, 39)

• Prahlad notes particular problems with using these documents, warning against their consideration as “a reliable source for those seeking to study black speech patterns and black English”

• The language patterns and dialect were recorded with varying degrees of concern for accuracy by collectors with no formal training, as a rule “taken down in pencil or pen, most often after the interview, from memory or from scattered field notes supplemented by memory”

It may be that features such as introductory formulas of proverbs, for example, were added, changed, or omitted by collectors not focused on such details, creating an absence of detail.

• One right reasonably surmise, however, that items which were more culture-specific to the speakers would have had less chance of being remembered or accurately recorded than items with which the collectors were already familiar.

• Thus the dominance of proverbs that were shared by Euro-Americans cannot be taken as an indication of the range of proverbial speech that existed among the informants. Making an absence of substantial proverbial knowledge and understanding from an American context.

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From Wit and wisdom from West Africa; or, A book of proverbial philosophy, idioms, enigmas, and laconisms another way to understand the way in which proverbs are controlled is the quote:

“Ensuring that people who are African and black do not have the opportunity to speak on their culture and share it on their own terms without translations and other changes” (Burton 2016, xiv)

• Which is seen in many of the texts provided in the 19th century and 20th century. This reduces the impact of resistance that proverbs are meant to have for black people and the community.

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In the article, “Tamed identities? Glimpsing her identity in Proverbs”, there is a patrolled absence of individual identities in womanhood as the promoted and socially accepted proverbs contain this picture of a woman in the “hetero-patriarchy.” Here are examples of proverbs that permit this idea of collective hetero-patriarchal perceptions of womanhood:

"A virtuous woman is a crown to her husband, but she who brings shame is as rottenness in his bones." (Pr 12:4; MEV)

"It is better to dwell in a corner of the housetop than with a brawling woman in a wide house." (Pr 21:9; MEV) 

By then limiting the context to one type of perception of women in proverbs, there is a controlling of identity and leading to an absence in alternate pathways for women that could be seen in other proverbs that highlight the strength and power of women.

"As can be expected, the agenda of the proverbs gives readers a glimpse of the patriarchal contexts that produced them: a good wife’s main duty is to do her husband good always." (Masenya 2018, 5)

The resurgence and new popularity of Black adages and proverbs can be analyzed through the lens of decontextualization and recontextualization. These traditional expressions of wisdom, deeply rooted in African and African diasporic cultures, undergo transformations as they spread and adapt to new contexts.

Black adages and proverbs originate within specific African cultures and communities of the African diaspora, reflecting the values, beliefs, and experiences of these groups. They encapsulate lessons learned from history, social norms, and cultural practices. As these proverbs spread beyond their original communities, they become decontextualized. This means they are often separated from the specific cultural, historical, and social contexts that originally shaped their meanings.

When Black adages and proverbs are adopted in new settings, they are recontextualized to address contemporary issues. This involves interpreting and applying their wisdom to modern challenges such as social justice, identity, resilience, and empowerment. Through recontextualization, these proverbs develop new, hybrid meanings. They blend traditional wisdom with modern relevance, making them applicable to a wider range of experiences while still retaining their cultural essence.

The proliferation of digital media and global platforms has facilitated the rapid spread and reinterpretation of Black adages and proverbs. Social media, blogs, podcasts, and other digital forums allow these expressions to reach global audiences, fostering a renewed interest and appreciation. Further, the resurgence of cultural movements, such as Black Lives Matter, has heightened awareness and interest in Black culture and heritage. This has contributed to the renewed popularity of Black adages and proverbs, as they are used to convey messages of resistance, solidarity, and empowerment. Black adages and proverbs are increasingly used in educational and motivational contexts. They are featured in literature, speeches, and educational materials, providing powerful tools for teaching and inspiring new generations.

The exchange of cultural wisdom across different communities has led to the hybridization of Black adages and proverbs. They are shared, adapted, and integrated into various cultural contexts, creating new expressions that resonate with diverse audiences. These proverbs find new forms in modern media, such as visual art, music, film, and digital content, which reinterpret and popularize them in ways that are accessible and engaging for contemporary audiences.