Invention of the Electric Suction Sweeper:

Around 1900, J. Murray Spangler, a department-store worker in New Berlin, Ohio, invented an electric suction sweeper, an early form of a vacuum cleaner.

Potential Neologisms:

The device could have led to new words such as "spangler" (to clean with the device), "spanglerish" (describing someone who drones on and on), or "spanglerism" (a style of behavior related to the device).

Fate of Neologisms:

However, Mr. Spangler sold the invention to William H. Hoover, and the device became known as a "Hoover."

The word "hoover" became widely recognized globally, and in Britain, people still use "hoovering" instead of "spanglering" to refer to vacuuming carpets.

Acceptance of Neologisms:

Despite the potential neologisms associated with Spangler's invention, the word "hoover" was readily accepted and became part of everyday language.

The tale emphasizes the ease with which people understand and adopt new words (neologisms) into their language.

Understanding Neologisms:

The ability to quickly comprehend and accept neologisms is attributed to the regularity in word-formation processes within a language.

Exploration of Word Creation:

The chapter aims to explore the fundamental processes through which new words (neologisms) are created and integrated into a language.

Etymology Definition:

Etymology is the study of the origin and history of a word. The term is derived from the Greek words "étymon" (original form) and "logia" (study of).

Greek and Latin Origins:

The word "etymology" has Latin roots but originates from Greek, specifically from "étymon" and "logia." It is distinct from "entomology," which is the study of insects.

Language Sources:

Greek and Latin, along with Germanic, are major sources of English words. They provide alternative ways to describe things, such as "mono-" from Greek (as in "monocycle") and "uni-" from Latin (as in "unicycle").

Variety in Word Entry:

Examining everyday word etymologies reveals various ways in which new words enter the language.

Evolution of Language:

Words now considered commonplace were once viewed as barbaric misuses of language. For example, "handbook" was considered a "tasteless innovation" in the early nineteenth century, and the word "aviation" caused horror in 1909.

Changing Perspectives:

The viewpoint on language evolution has shifted over time. Instead of considering new words as debasing the language, it is suggested to view the constant evolution as a sign of vitality and creativity, shaped by the needs of language users.

Borrowing in Language:

One of the most common ways new words enter English is through borrowing, where words are adopted from other languages.

Historical Examples:

English has borrowed words from various languages:

Dutch: dope

Italian: piano

Tahitian: tattoo

French: jewel

German: pretzel

Japanese: tycoon

Yiddish: glitzy

Norwegian: ski

Turkish: yogurt

Persian: lilac

Arabic: sofa

Bantu: zebra

Introduction of Sounds:

New sounds, such as the voiced fricative /ʒ/, were introduced through borrowing, as seen in French words like "measure" and "rouge."

Reciprocal Borrowing:

Other languages also borrow terms from English, as seen in Japanese ("suupaa," "suupaamaaketto," "taipuraitaa") or Finnish ("šekki").

Innovative Usage:

Borrowed words can take on novel meanings in the borrowing language, such as Brazilian Portuguese turning "up" and "nerd" into verbs ("upar" and "nerdear").

Loan-Translation or Calque:

A special type of borrowing involves direct translation of elements of a word, known as loan-translation or calque.

Examples include:

French: gratte-ciel ("scrape-sky")

Dutch: wolkenkrabber ("cloud scratcher")

German: Wolkenkratzer ("cloud scraper")

Examples of Loan-Translations:

The term "superman" is considered a loan-translation of the German "Übermensch."

The word "loanword" itself is believed to have originated from the German "Lehnwort."

The expression "moment of truth" is thought to be a calque from the Spanish phrase "el momento de la verdad."

Cultural Adaptations:

Borrowed words may undergo sound changes or be adapted culturally, as seen in Japanese ("boyifurendo") and Chinese ("nan pengyu") interpretations of the English concept of "boyfriend."

Compounding in Language:

Compounding is a common linguistic process where two separate words are joined to form a single term. This process is prevalent in languages like German and English.

Examples of Compounds:

Examples of English compounds include bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, sunburn, textbook, wallpaper, wastebasket, and waterbed. Compounds can be nouns, adjectives (good-looking, low-paid), or combinations of adjectives and nouns (fast-food restaurant, full-time job).

Cross-Linguistic Examples:

Compounding is not limited to English and German; it can also be found in unrelated languages like Hmong, spoken in Laos and Vietnam, where compounds like hwjkais ("kettle") or hnabrauntawv ("schoolbag") are created.

Blending:

Blending is another process where two separate forms create a new term. It involves combining the beginning of one word with the end of another.

Examples of blending include smog (smoke + fog), smaze (smoke + haze), smurk (smoke + murk), bit (binary/digit), brunch (breakfast/lunch), motel (motor/hotel), telecast (television/broadcast), Oxbridge (Oxford/Cambridge), Chunnel (Channel/tunnel), telethon, infotainment (information/entertainment), simulcast (simultaneous/broadcast), Franglais (Français/Anglais), Spanglish (Spanish/English), telex (teleprinter/exchange), modem (modulator/demodulator), and velcro (velours croché).

Language Mixing and Blends:

Terms like Franglais and Spanglish describe language mixing, while some blends involve combining the beginnings of both words, such as telex (teleprinter/exchange) or modem (modulator/demodulator).

Fax as a Distinct Category:

The term "fax" is not considered a blend, and the specific category is likely discussed in the following section.

Clipping in Language:

Clipping is a linguistic process where a word with more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often occurring in casual speech.

Examples of Clipped Forms:

Common examples of clipped forms include fax (from facsimile), gas (from gasoline), ad (from advertisement), bra (from brassiere), cab (from cabriolet), condo (from condominium), fan (from fanatic), flu (from influenza), perm (from permanent wave), phone, plane, porn, and pub (from public house).

Hypocorisms:

Hypocorisms involve the reduction of a longer word to a single syllable, followed by the addition of -y or -ie. This process is often observed in Australian and British English, leading to words like movie (from "moving pictures"), telly (from "television"), Aussie (from "Australian"), barbie (from "barbecue"), bickie (from "biscuit"), bookie (from "bookmaker"), brekky (from "breakfast"), hankie (from "handkerchief"), and toastie (from "toasted sandwich").

Backformation:

Backformation is a specialized type of reduction where a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of another type (usually a verb). Examples include donate (from "donation"), emote (from "emotion"), enthuse (from "enthusiasm"), and liaise (from "liaison"). Backformation often occurs when a noun, like "television," gives rise to a verb, such as "televise." Other examples include automation → automate, bulldozer → bulldoze, choreography → choreograph, mixture → mix, syllabification → syllabify, and orientation → orientate → orient.

Backformed Verbs:

A common source of backformed verbs in English is based on the pattern work – worker, assuming that if there is a noun ending in -er, a verb for what that noun-er does can be created. Examples include edit (from "editor"), sculpt (from "sculptor"), babysit (from "babysitter"), beg (from "beggar"), burgle (from "burglar"), peddle (from "peddler"), and swindle (from "swindler").

Conversion in Language:

Conversion is a linguistic process where a word changes its function, such as when a noun is used as a verb or vice versa. Other terms for this process include "category change" and "functional shift."

Examples of Conversion:

Noun to Verb:

Examples: bottle (We bottled the home-brew last night), butter (Have you buttered the toast?), chair (Someone has to chair the meeting), vacation (They’re vacationing in Florida).

Verb to Noun:

Examples: guess (I have a guess), must (It's a must), spy (He's a spy), print out (I need a printout), take over (We had a takeover), want to be (He's a wannabe).

Verb to Adjective:

Examples: see through (see-through material), stand up (a stand-up comedian).

Adjective to Verb or Noun:

Examples: dirty (to dirty a floor), empty (to empty a room), crazy (some crazy ideas), nasty (those nasty people).

Compound Nouns as Other Functions:

Examples: ball park (a ball-park figure, to ball-park an estimate), carpool (to carpool), mastermind (to mastermind), microwave (to microwave), quarterback (to quarterback).

Words Shifting in Meaning Through Conversion:

Examples: doctor (the verb "to doctor" often has a negative sense), total (if you total your car), run around (if your insurance company gives you the runaround).

Note:

Some words can undergo a substantial shift in meaning when they go through the conversion process, as seen in examples like "to doctor" having a negative sense, unlike the source noun "doctor." Similarly, the noun "total" and the verb "run around" may not have negative meanings individually, but in specific contexts, they can acquire a double sense of negativity.

Coinage in Language:

Coinage refers to the invention and widespread use of entirely new terms in a language. This process is not very common in English, and typical sources include trade names for commercial products that later become general terms.

Examples of Coinage:

Older Examples: aspirin, nylon, vaseline, zipper.

More Recent Examples: granola, kleenex, teflon, xerox.

Contemporary Example: Google (originally a misspelling for "googol," now a widely used verb meaning "to use the internet to find information").

Eponyms:

New words based on the name of a person or a place are called eponyms. Examples include "hoover" (used as a verb) and "teddy bear" (derived from US president Theodore Roosevelt).

Acronyms:

Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. They can be pronounced as individual letters or as new single words. Examples include CD (compact disk), SPCA (Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals), NATO, NASA, UNESCO.

Acronyms like laser, radar, scuba, SIM card, and ZIP code have become everyday terms.

Some acronyms are formed into initialisms, where each letter is pronounced separately. For instance, ATM (automatic teller machine) and PIN (personal identification number).

Initialisms:

An example of an initialism is ATM, often used with one of its elements repeated, as in "I sometimes forget my PIN number when I go to the ATM machine."

Note:

The use of acronyms and initialisms is prevalent in various contexts, including names for organizations and technological innovations.

Derivation in Language:

The most common word-formation process for creating new words is derivation. This process involves the use of affixes, which are small linguistic elements not usually listed separately in dictionaries.

Affixes:

Affixes are classified into prefixes and suffixes based on their position in a word.

Prefixes: Added to the beginning of a word (e.g., un-, mis-).

Suffixes: Added to the end of a word (e.g., -less, -ish).

All English words formed through derivation have either prefixes, suffixes, or both.

Number of Derivational Affixes:

English has approximately 200 derivational affixes, with around 90 prefixes and 110 suffixes.

Infixes:

Infixes are another type of affix, but they are not commonly used in English. Instead of being added to the beginning or end of a word, an infix is incorporated inside another word.

English occasionally shows a similar effect in expressions like "Hallebloodylujah!" or "Unfuckinbelievable!" when emotionally charged language is used.

Examples of Infixes in Khmu (Kamhmu):

Khmu, a language spoken in northern Laos and Vietnam, employs infixes in a regular pattern.

Examples:

Verb ("to drill"): seesrnee (Noun: srnee - "a drill")

Verb ("to chisel"): tohtrnoh (Noun: trnoh - "a chisel")

Verb ("to eat with a spoon"): hiiphrniip (Noun: hrniip - "a spoon")

Verb ("to tie"): hoomhrnoom (Noun: hrnoom - "a thing with which to tie")

Note:

The infix -rn- is consistently used in Khmu to transform verbs into nouns, providing a regular pattern for word formation.

Multiple Word-Formation Processes:

Words often undergo more than one word-formation process in their creation, demonstrating the dynamic nature of language evolution.

Examples of Multiple Processes:

Deli: The term "deli" in American English is an example of borrowing followed by clipping. It originated from borrowing "delicatessen" (German) and then clipping the borrowed form for convenience.

Snowballed: The word "snowballed" is an example of compounding followed by conversion. "Snow" and "ball" were compounded to form the noun "snowball," which was then converted into a verb.

Lase: The verb "lase" is an example of an acronym (laser) undergoing backformation to create a new verb.

Waspish: In "waspish attitudes," the acronym WASP ("white Anglo-Saxon Protestant") lost its capital letters and gained a suffix (-ish) through derivation.

Analogy in Word Formation:

Yuppie: The term "yuppie" (young urban professional) was formed through analogy. It was influenced by the existing words "hippie" and "yippie," and the analogy helped create a new word to describe a specific group.

Yappies: Another example of analogy is the term "yappies," formed by analogy with the word "yap" ("to make shrill noises"). It labels noisy young professionals and showcases how language continues to evolve through creative processes.

Brief Life-Span of New Words:

Many newly formed words can have a brief life-span, and their acceptance in a language is often confirmed when they are included in dictionaries.

Protests and Language Evolution:

Language evolution, especially the introduction of new words, can face resistance from conservative voices. This resistance has historical parallels, such as Noah Webster facing criticism for including new verb forms and "vulgar" words in his early dictionaries.

Examples of Recent Word Additions:

App: Clipped from "application."

Vape: Clipped from "vaporizer."

Blog: Blended from "web log."

Sexting: Blend of "sexual texting."

Unfriend: Conversion of a new verb.

Mint: Conversion, meaning "cool."

Language Evolution and Dictionaries:

The inclusion of newly formed words in dictionaries is often considered a significant milestone in their acceptance within a language.

When is an eponym a neologism?

An eponym is considered a neologism when it involves the creation of a new word based on the name of a person or a place.

Which word-formation process is the source of the English word "modem?"

The word-formation process involved in the creation of the English word "modem" is blending (modulator/demodulator).

Which two processes were involved in the creation of the verb "google," as in "Have you ever googled yourself?"?

The two processes involved are:

Coinage: The term "google" originated as a misspelling of "googol," later evolving into a company name (Google).

Conversion: The noun "Google" was converted into a verb, meaning "to use the internet to find information."

Which process is clearly involved in creating the new term "selfie"?

The process involved in creating the new term "selfie" is clipping.

What do we call the process whereby a new word is formed to be similar to an existing word?

The process is called analogy.

Which of the following pairs contains an example of calque? How would you describe the other(s)?

(c) luna de miel (Spanish “moon of honey”) – honeymoon (English)

This pair contains an example of calque. Calque involves a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language. The other pairs do not involve calque but represent borrowings.

Can you identify the different word-formation processes involved in producing each of the underlined words in these sentences?

(a) AIDS: Acronym

(b) fandamntastic: Blending

(c) kickass: Conversion

(d) doc: Clipping

(e) burgled, babysitting: Conversion

(f) comfy: Clipping

(g) toastie: Conversion

(h) velcro: Calque

Identify the prefixes and suffixes used in these words:

misfortune: mis-

terrorism: -ism

carelessness: -ness

disagreement: dis-

ineffective: in-

unfaithful: un-

prepackaged: pre-

biodegradable: bio-, -able

reincarnation: re-, -ation

decentralization: de-, -ation

In Khmu, the word "kap" means “to grasp with tongs,” and "tiap" means “to fold a small package.” What would be the words for “tongs” and “a small package”?

"Tongs": kapal

"A small package": tiapbā

More than one process was involved in the creation of the forms underlined in these sentences. Can you identify the processes involved in each case?

(a) FedEx: Coinage, Acronym

(b) carjackings: Blending

(c) hoover: Conversion

(d) temp: Clipping

(e) blogging: Conversion

(f) decaf: Clipping