Phonology is the study of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.

It focuses on the abstract or mental aspects of sound patterns rather than the physical articulation of speech sounds.

Individual variations in pronunciation due to factors like shouting, illness, or fatigue are numerous, yet we consistently recognize words.

Phonology deals with the underlying design or blueprint of each sound type, representing them in a constant way regardless of individual differences in pronunciation.

It helps us understand why certain sounds, like [t], are treated as the same in words such as tar, star, writer, butter, and eighth, despite potential articulation differences.

The distinction between sounds (e.g., [t], [k], [f], [b]) is more significant in phonology than the variations within a specific sound, as it has meaningful consequences for word distinctions.

Phonology enables us to recognize and interpret the meaning of words based on the abstract representation of sounds in our minds, despite the variability in their actual physical production.

Phonemes:

Phonemes are meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language.

Each phoneme represents a stable sound type and is symbolized by a single written symbol in alphabetic writing.

The concept of a phoneme is abstract, indicated by slash marks (e.g., /t/), as opposed to the physically produced segment represented by square brackets (e.g., [t]).

Contrastive Property:

A key property of phonemes is their contrastive nature.

Phonemes are determined by their ability to create a change in meaning when one sound is replaced with another in a word.

Natural Classes:

Descriptive terms in Chapter 3, referred to as "features," distinguish phonemes from one another.

Features are marked with plus (+) for presence and minus (-) for absence.

Examples include /p/ being characterized as [−voice, +bilabial, +stop] and /k/ as [−voice, +velar, +stop].

Phonemes with common features are considered members of a natural class, and they tend to behave phonologically in similar ways.

Feature analysis can provide insights into the phonological patterns of language.

Example Feature Analysis:

/p/ and /k/ are in a natural class as they share features like being voiceless stops.

/v/ has features like [+voice, +labiodental, +fricative], making it distinct from /p/ and /k/.

Feature analysis may suggest phonological reasons for common English word patterns (e.g., frequent words beginning with /pl-/ and /kl-/, but not with /vl-/ or /nl-/).

Applications:

Phonological analysis of features allows not only the description of individual phonemes but also the examination of possible sequences of phonemes in a language.

Understanding natural classes helps identify phonological patterns and tendencies in word formations.

Phones and Allophones:

Phones are different versions of a sound type regularly produced in actual speech and are represented in square brackets.

Allophones are a set of phones that are variations of one phoneme, indicated by the prefix "allo-" meaning one of a closely related set.

Examples of Allophones of /t/:

[t] in "tar" with a strong puff of air.

[tʰ] representing an aspirated phone.

[ɾ] as a flap in words like "writer."

[ʔ] as a glottal stop in words like "butter."

[t̪] with dental articulation influenced by the final [θ] sound in "eighth."

Variations and Precise Representation:

Variations like [tʰ], [ɾ], [ʔ], and [t̪] can be represented in a detailed or narrow phonetic transcription.

All these variations are considered allophones of the phoneme /t/.

Crucial Distinction Between Phonemes and Allophones:

Substituting one phoneme for another results in a word with a different meaning and pronunciation.

Substituting allophones only results in a different pronunciation of the same word.

Complementary Distribution:

Allophones are said to be in complementary distribution when two different pronunciations of a phoneme are used in different places in words.

For example, [th] (aspiration) in /t/ occurs word-initially (as in "tar") but not after another consonant in initial position (as in "star").

Minimal Pairs and Sets:

Phonemic distinctions in a language can be tested using minimal pairs and sets.

Minimal pair example: "fan" and "van," where the only difference is a contrast in one phoneme.

Minimal set example: A group of words differentiated by changing one phoneme in the same position in each word.

Phonotactics:

Phonotactics refers to the patterns of sound combinations permitted in a language.

Certain combinations may be considered acceptable or unacceptable based on phonological knowledge.

"Accidental" gaps in vocabulary result from forms that do not adhere to the phonotactic constraints of a language.

Syllables:

A syllable must contain a vowel or vowel-like sound, including diphthongs.

The basic syllable structure is represented as CV, where C is the onset (consonant or consonant cluster) and V is the nucleus (vowel or vowel-like sound) with an optional coda (consonant(s) following the vowel).

Open syllables (e.g., me, to) lack a coda, while closed syllables (e.g., up, cup) have a coda.

Consonant Clusters:

Both the onset and the coda can consist of more than a single consonant, forming consonant clusters.

Examples include /st/ in "stop" (onset) and "post" (coda).

English permits various consonant cluster onset combinations, such as /bl/ in "black" and /tr/ in "trick."

Larger onset clusters, like /spl/ in "splat" or /str/ in "stress," follow certain patterns and often involve the natural class of voiceless stops, liquids (/l/, /r/), and glides (/w/).

Patterns in Larger Onset Clusters:

Larger onset clusters, like CCC in "splash," often follow a regular pattern.

For example, in words like "stress" or "splat," the first consonant is typically /s/, followed by a voiceless stop (/p/, /t/, /k/), and a liquid or glide (/l/, /r/, /w/).

Examples like "splash," "spring," "strong," "scream," and "squeeze" (/skwiz/) align with this pattern.

Analysis and Application:

Analyzing the phonotactics of larger onset clusters helps uncover regular patterns in the language.

Consideration of onset clusters involves studying the consonant combinations and their positions within syllables, not just the beginning of words.

Coarticulation Effects:

Languages, including English, often reduce large consonant clusters in casual conversational speech, especially in the middle of words.

Coarticulation, the process of making one sound almost simultaneously with the next sound, is a common feature in fast and spontaneous speech.

Assimilation:

Assimilation occurs when one sound segment adopts some aspect of another sound segment in sequence.

For example, in casual speech, the voiced /v/ in "have" may assimilate to a voiceless /f/ when followed by the voiceless /t/ in "to go," resulting in the pronunciation [hæftə].

Nasalization:

Vowels can undergo nasalization in anticipation of a following nasal consonant.

In words like "pin" and "pan," the vowels [ɪ] and [æ] may become nasalized, represented as [ɪ̃] and [æ̃].

Elision:

Elision involves not pronouncing a sound segment that might be present in the deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation.

Consonant clusters, especially in coda position, may experience elision. For instance, /t/ in the phrase "aspects" may be elided in casual pronunciation, resulting in [æspɛks].

Vowels can also disappear through elision, leading to the absence of a whole syllable in words like "every" pronounced as [ɛvri].

Summary of Processes:

Assimilation, nasalization, and elision are summarized in Table 4.4, using symbols (/____) to indicate "in the context of" or "under the influence of" the following element.

Normal Speech:

These processes are natural and occur in everyone's normal speech.

They contribute to the fluidity and efficiency of speech, and avoiding them would result in artificial-sounding talk.

Understanding these phonological processes helps uncover regularities and patterns in the actual use of sounds in language.

French Vowels:

In French, the words /bo/ for "beau" ("handsome") and /bõ/ for "bon" ("good") with seemingly different vowels could be allophones or phonemes. Determine the status of these vowels in French.

English Phoneme Features:

Identify the English phoneme with the features –voice, +velar, +stop.

Aspirated Sound:

Define what an aspirated sound is and identify which word among "kill, pool, skill, spool, stop, top" would normally be pronounced with an aspirated sound.

Minimal Pair, Set, or Neither:

Analyze the phrase "big black bag" to determine if it contains a minimal pair, a minimal set, or neither.

Minimal Pairs:

From the given words, identify which pairs would be treated as minimal pairs.

Phonotactics:

Explain what is meant by the phonotactics of a language.

Nucleus in "track":

Identify which sound(s) in the pronunciation of "track" would be the nucleus.

Open and Closed Syllables:

Explain the difference between an open and a closed syllable.

Nasal Consonant in "I can go":

Determine whether the nasal consonant in the everyday pronunciation of "I can go" is alveolar or velar.

Elision in Word Pronunciations:

Identify the segments in the pronunciation of the words "government," "postman," "pumpkin," "sandwich," and "victory" that are most likely to be affected by elision.