The topic of the existence of God is not simple as there are a multitude of beliefs among people regarding the existence of God. Some people believe that there is no God at all and there are people who believe in several gods. Some even believe that everything is part of God including themselves. Figure 1 depicts a variety of opinions among the people regarding the existence or non-existence of God. The various terms used for such beliefs are elaborated under the subsequent headings. 

THEISM

Theism is the belief in the existence of God. Theists typically believe that God is a supreme being Who is All-Powerful, All-Knowing, and All-Good. Theists typically believe that God created the universe and everything in it. There is, however, a wide variation in the theistic beliefs. The following texts classify the various theistic beliefs found in this world:

Monotheism

Monotheists believe in a single and All-Powerful God. Adherents of the Abrahamic religions that is followers of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity are generally considered monotheists. The religion of Islam strictly adheres to monotheism. Allah is the name of God in Islam Who is considered as the Sole, All-Powerful Creator and Sustainer of the universe. According to Muslim belief, Allah is merciful and compassionate and He demands complete submission to His will. Judaism believes in a single, transcendent God, Yahweh, who is omnipotent, and omnipresent. According to the Judaist belief, Yahweh established a covenant with the Jewish people and actively participates in their historical events. Monotheism in Christianity is somewhat different from monotheism in Islam and Judaism. Monotheism in Christianity is also sometimes referred to as trinitarian monotheism as explained under the next heading.

Trinitarian monotheism

Trinitarian monotheism is the term used to describe a complex concept of monotheism in Christianity. It attempts to reconcile the belief in one God with the existence of three distinct persons within that single God. According to the Christian faith, the three distinct persons in single God are Father, Son (Jesus Christ), and Holy Spirit. Trinitarian monotheism consists of two seemingly contradictory ideas: monotheism and trinity. As per monotheism, it believes in one absolute and supreme God who is the creator and sustainer of the universe. However, at the same time, it also believes in the Trinity, which states that God exists as three distinct persons that is Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit. According to Christian belief, these three persons are not separate or interchangeable but are united in one divine essence. 

The concept of the Trinity is a concept that many people, including many Christians themselves, find difficult to grasp. The idea of a singular person existing as multiple personalities challenges the everyday understanding of oneness and separateness. Many people find the concept frustratingly paradoxical.  

Polytheism

Polytheism is a belief in multiple gods. Thus, polytheists worship multiple gods and goddesses. According to their belief, these deities are often organized into pantheons, that is, groups of gods associated with specific domains like the sea, the sky, love, war, or the underworld. These deities are believed to have complex relationships with each other, forming families, rivalries, and alliances. However, it must be noted that polytheism is not a rigid doctrine. It is a diverse framework encompassing many different interpretations and practices. Nevertheless, some key features of polytheism are mentioned below.

Each pantheon of gods usually has a hierarchy, with powerful chief gods overseeing lesser deities. In some cultures, there are even regional or household gods with more localized influence. Each god in polytheism typically has a specific domain or area of influence. For example, Zeus ruled the sky and Poseidon ruled the sea in Greek mythology. Polytheistic rituals vary greatly among various groups of people. Polytheism however often involves offerings, prayers, festivals, and religious performances to please the gods or to appease them when they are angered. Polytheistic beliefs and practices have existed in various forms throughout the human history. Polytheism was found in ancient Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Norse, Hindu, and many other cultures. Examples of polytheistic religions are Hinduism, Hellenism (ancient Greek religion), and Asatru (religion of the original Viking settlers of Iceland).

Henotheism

Henotheism is something in between monotheism and polytheism. Henotheists worship a single supreme deity however they also acknowledge the presence of other smaller deities. Henotheism acknowledges the presence of multiple gods or goddesses within a pantheon; however, it emphasizes the preeminence of the chosen supreme deity. This supreme deity is seen as all-powerful, omnipresent, and ultimately responsible for the creation and sustenance of the universe. Henotheists, while recognizing and respecting all other deities, focus their worship and devotion solely on one supreme god. In henotheism, the chosen supreme god may change depending upon the circumstances or needs of the individual or the community. For instance, a farmer may primarily focus on a god of fertility, while a warrior may turn to a god of battle.

In ancient Egypt, the Pharaohs often emphasized a particular god during their rule, even while acknowledging other deities in the Egyptian pantheon. Caodaism, a Vietnamese religion, is an example of a henotheistic religion present today. Hinduism also encompasses a vast array of deities; however, specific individuals or sects might focus their devotion on a chosen god like Shiva or Vishnu. 

Pantheism

According to pantheism, everything that exists is God, and God is everything. This belief system views the universe as God. This implies that everything including mountains, trees, animals, and human beings are all parts of the same divine, interconnected whole. In pantheism, God is not seen as a separate, transcendent being, but rather God is viewed as fully present and active within the universe. As per pantheism, everything in this universe is interconnected and interdependent making it a harmonious whole. It should be noted that there are different interpretations of pantheism. Not all pantheists agree on the same form of pantheism. 

Pantheism has been present in various philosophical and religious traditions throughout history. For example, Hinduism has pantheistic elements, with concepts like Brahman (the universal spirit), and Atman (the individual soul) seen as aspects of the same divine reality. Some forms of Buddhism, such as Zen, emphasize the interconnectedness of all things. It teaches the human’s potential to experience the oneness with the universe. Stoicism, an ancient Greek philosophy, believed that the universe is governed by rational logos which permeates all of its existence. Baruch Spinoza, the seventeenth-century philosopher was also an advocate of pantheism.

Panentheism

Both pantheism and panentheism have many similarities but they offer distinct perspectives on the nature of God and universe. According to pantheism, everything is God. Whereas, according to panentheism everything is God but God is also beyond everything. That is, God also transcends the universe. In simple words, pantheism believes that the universe is God and panentheism believes that the universe is in God but God is also beyond the universe. 

It should be noted that panentheism can be interpreted in various ways, and not all adherents within a particular tradition will subscribe to a strict panentheistic view. Many Indigenous religions around the world display panentheistic characteristics. The concept of a Great Spirit that is both present in nature and beyond it is a common theme. Some aspects of Hinduism, particularly monistic schools like Advaita Vedanta and Kashmir Shaivism, can be considered panentheistic. These traditions see the divine (Brahman) as both the immanent reality in everything and the transcendent of it. 

Deism

Deists believe in the existence of God through reason and observation of the natural world instead of relying on revelation or religious authority. Deists generally believe in a creator of the universe who is often referred to as a “prime mover” or “first cause”. According to Deists, God does not intervene in the ongoing operations of the universe rather God has established fixed immutable laws of nature that govern its operations. Thus, according to them, God after its creation does not intervene in the functioning of the universe. Deists reject religious teachings as a source of divine knowledge. They emphasize reason and observation as the primary tools for understanding God and the universe. 

Deism is not a religion therefore it lacks organized structures, rituals, and clergy. It is like a philosophical framework to understand the universe and the place of humans in it. Deism was significant during the Enlightenment Era in Western Europe and North America. Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, and Voltaire are some popular historical figures believing in deism. Deism is still present in the modern world. Some people hold deistic beliefs without necessarily identifying with any specific group. 

ATHEISM

Atheists do not believe in any god or deity. It is not a single organized belief system but rather an umbrella term for diverse perspectives on the divine. The atheist does not need to deny the existence of God, rather, according to many atheists there is a lack of conviction or evidence for God’s existence. Some atheists however actively reject the concept of God. Atheists are thus individuals with diverse backgrounds, beliefs, and reasons for their non-belief in God. Atheism can be classified into the following two major types:

1. Positive atheism

2. Negative atheism

Positive atheism is the belief that God does not exist. Positive atheists support their argument against the existence of God using reason, evidence, or lack of proof. Whereas, negative atheism rejects God without actively asserting His non-existence. Negative atheists have a wide range of views on morality deriving from sources like reason, empathy, humanist principles, or personal philosophies.

Not all atheists are so vocal against religions. However, anti-theism is a stance that is actively against the concept of theism. Anti-theists do not believe in God and they also actively oppose the concept of theism. They often criticize the religion as harmful to society. Richard Dawkins, Ricky Gervais, and Christopher Hitchens are some examples of anti-theism. They all are vocal critics of religions. 

AGNOSTICISM

Agnosticism asserts that the existence or non-existence of God or supernatural entities is unknown and also unknowable. Agnosticism can be categorized into the following two major groups:

1. Strong agnosticism 

2. Weak agnosticism 

Strong agnostics believe that the question of the existence of God is fundamentally beyond human comprehension and cannot be answered through reason or experience. They argue that our current knowledge and limitations prevent us from definitively proving or disproving the existence of God. Bertrand Russell and Thomas Henry Huxley are considered as strong agnostics. Weak Agnosticism acknowledges the lack of current sufficient evidence to irrefutably support either belief in or rejection of the existence of God. Nevertheless, they hold an open mind and are willing to accept new evidence or arguments that might change their position. Anthony Flew and Carl Sagan are said to be weak agnostics. 

Apart from these two major classifications, some other forms of agnosticism exist. For example, ap agnostics lack interest in the question of God’s existence considering it irrelevant to their life. Agnostic atheists do not believe in God but call themselves agnostic due to the absence of conclusive proof of God. Agnostic theists believe in God while acknowledging the limitations of human knowledge on the topic. It should be noted that agnosticism is not a belief system, but rather a position regarding the limitations of knowledge on the existence of God. 

APATHEISM AND IGNOSTICISM

Both apatheists and ignosticists lack interest in knowing or discussing the existence of God. However, there are some differences between the two concepts. The term apatheism comes from the word ‘apathy’. This term was coined in 2001 by theologian Robert Nash. Apatheism is not a belief system rather it is an attitude or stance towards the question of divinity. Apatheists do not care whether God exists or not. They think that the concept of God is irrelevant to their lives therefore they typically avoid arguments or discussions about God’s existence. 

Ignosticism or igtheism suggests that the question of God’s existence is meaningless and nonsensical. Ignosticists believe that the term “God” itself lacks a clear and unambiguous definition. They do not take any stance on the existence or non-existence of God as they reject the question itself, not the answer. They think that the concept of God is undefined as according to them terms like “omnipotence” and “transcendence” used to describe God are either vague or contradictory. Some people think of ignoticism as an extreme form of agnosticism whereas others feel that ignoticism is a distinct concept from agnosticism. It should be noted that ignoticism is a diverse and evolving concept with different interpretations and nuances.

From theism to ignosticism, in this page I discussed a large diversity of views among the people regarding the existence of God. There is a wide variation in the concept of God even among the theists, the people who believe in the existence of God. Not all opinions about God can be simultaneously right. For example, atheism and theism cannot be right simultaneously as either there is God or there is no God. In the same way, the monotheists and polytheists cannot be simultaneously right. That is, if God exists then either monotheists are right or polytheists are right. 

So, the question here is, who is right and who is wrong? What is the truth? Is there any way to reach that truth? "Epistemological Argument for God" provides the answers to these questions in a unique way for reaching the truth.