Sentence Structure:

Clause = subject and verb i.e. I like dogs. Because I like dogs.

IC = independent clause = can stand alone i.e. I like dogs.

DC= dependent clause = cannot stand alone i.e. Because I like dogs.

CC = coordinate conjunctions = FANBOYS (mnemonic)

Examples of coordinate conjunctions (FANBOYS)

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

DMW = Dependent Marker Words

Examples of some subordinating conjunction DMW:

after, although, as, as if,as long as,as though,because,before,even if,even though,

if,if only,in order that,now that,once,rather than,since,so that,than,

that,though,till,unless,until,when,whenever,where,whereas,wherever,while,

Examples of relative pronoun DMW:

who, whom, whose, which, that, what

DC, IC example:

Because I like dogs, I work at the pet shop.

IC DC example:

I work at the pet shop because I like dogs.

IC; IC example:

I like dogs; they smell good.

IC, CC IC example (make sure it is logical):

I like dogs, for they smell good. (works/logical)

I like dogs, and they smell good. (works/logical)

I like dogs, nor they smell good. (does not work/illogical)

CC IC examples:

But I don't know.

And I don't know.

IMW = independent marker word (Adverbial Conjunction or Conjunctive Adverbs) NOT THE SAME AS DMW

Examples of some Adverbial Conjunction or Conjunctive Adverbs:

accordingly,also,anyway,besides,certainly,consequently,conversely,conversely,further,

furthermore,hence,however,incidentally,indeed,instead,instead,

meanwhile,namely,nevertheless,next,nonetheless,now,

otherwise,similarly,still,subsequently,then,thereafter,therefore,thus,undoubtedly,

IMW, IC example:

However, he didn’t work at the pet shop. (IMW in front of IC)

He, however, didn’t work at the pet shop. (IMW in the middle of IC)

He didn’t work at the pet shop, however. (IMW at the end of IC)

Example of typical SAT error using IMW, IC.

I like dogs, however, I own a cat. (wrong) IC, IMW, IC.

I like dogs; however, I own a cat. (correct) IC; IMW, IC.

Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."

Words and Phrases

With the -ing form (gerund) of words:

Parallel:

Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.

With infinitive phrases:

Parallel:

Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.

OR

Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.

(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)

*Do not mix forms.

Example 1

Not Parallel:

Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.

Parallel:

Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.

Example 2

Not Parallel:

The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner.

Parallel:

The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.

Example 3

Not Parallel:

The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.

Parallel:

The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.

Clauses

A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.

Example 1

Not Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.

— or —

Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Example 2

Not Parallel:

The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive)

Parallel:

The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions.

Lists After a Colon

Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.

Example 1

Not Parallel:

The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.

Parallel:

The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.

Perfect Tense A (Present Perfect and Past Perfect)

There are other Perfect Tenses but I will talk about Present Perfect and Past Perfect in this lesson.

Past Perfect

The Past Perfect is composed of two parts: the past tense of the verb to have (had) + the past participle of the main verb.

A past participle indicates past or completed action or time. It is often called the 'ed' form as it is formed by adding d or ed, to the base form of regular verbs; however, it is also formed in various other ways for irregular verbs.

The Past Perfect is used when you want to signify that an action happened before another action in the past.

For example:

Past Perfect : He had had a car. (This is not a typo)

(He had a car until something happened.)

Simple Past : He had a car.

(He had a car until sometime in the past.)

Present Perfect

The Present Perfect is composed of two parts: the present tense of the verb to have (have) + the past participle of the main verb.

The Present Perfect is used when you want to signify that an action happened at an unspecified time before NOW. The exact time is not important.

For example:

Present Perfect : I have had a car.

(Sometime before now I had a car.)

The Present Perfect has several restrictions. The Present Perfect CANNOT be used with specific time expressions.

Examples of restricted specific time expressions:

yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc.

The Present Perfect CAN be used with unspecific expressions.

Examples of unspecific expressions:

ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

There are three usages of the colon

1. To introduce an example or list.

For example:

Claire went to the market to buy the ingredients she needed to bake her cake: flour, eggs, and sugar.

2. To give an explanation or an answer.

For example:

Lucy is afraid of bees: she was stung once as a child and ended up in the hospital.

3. To state a quotation.

For example:

Don’t forget the Golden Rule: “Do onto others as you would have them do onto you."

*Be careful not to separate a subject from its verb or a verb from its object.

Example 1:

The wedding cake was made: with layers of icing, fresh fruits, edible flowers, and chocolate mousse.

o A. NO CHANGE

o B. made, with

o C. made with

o D. made with:

Example 2:

At the Supermarket, Mary picked up three items. Bread, cheese, and soup.

o A. NO CHANGE

o B. three things; bread,

o C. three things: bread,

o D. three things, bread,

SECOND PART IS A FRAGMENT not a complete sentence.

The first usage you need to know is connecting 2 ICs that are related in meaning without using any connecting words/FANBOYS. IC; IC.

Thinks you should already know.

IC = independent clause = can stand alone i.e. I like dogs.

IMW = independent marker word (Adverbial Conjunction or Conjunctive Adverbs) (accordingly, also, conversely, nevertheless, therefore, etc.). NOT THE SAME AS DMW

CC = coordinate conjunctions = FANBOYS (mnemonic)

Examples of coordinate conjunctions (FANBOYS)

for

and

nor

but

or

yet

so

Key Points

The most common punctuation question on the SAT.

Essentially, semicolons connect 2 ICs together.

ICs have a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought and can, therefore, standalone

There are two ways of using it:

IC;IC or IC; IMW, IC

That means it should be correct to replace it with a period but you won’t be asked to choose between them.

1. The first usage is connecting 2 ICs that are related in meaning without using any connecting words/FANBOYS. IC; IC.

For example:

Some students see the merits of living at home, they enjoy not having to cook or do their own laundry. (WRONG)

Two ICs connected by a comma = a comma splice

SPLICE means to JOIN not split

Replace the comma with a semicolon to correct the error

Susie lives in downtown Toronto; she lives in the distillery district. (CORRECT)

Example Question:

The Johnson family decided to go to Mexico for Christmas, they really needed some time to relax.

o A. NO CHANGE

o B. Christmas, they,

o C. Christmas they

o D. Christmas; they

You Can Only Compare Equivalent Things

An illogical or faulty comparison occurs when a sentence compares two things that aren't of the same type:

Faulty Comparison

Jimmy’s restaurant has more customers than Bob does.

Even though it might seem fine, this sentence is comparing "Jimmy's restaurant" with "Bob," which makes no sense. In order to correct it, we have to alter the wording so that the two things being compared are the same type of thing:

Logical Comparison

Jimmy’s restaurant has more customers than Bob's restaurant does.

This sentence, though correct, sounds pretty repetitive. To streamline it, we can drop the second "restaurant":

Logical Comparison (streamlined)

Jimmy’s restaurant has more customers than Bob's does.

It's still clear that we're comparing Jimmy and Bob's restaurants, but in a way that's not as redundant sounding. Depending on the sentence's construction, it may also be correct to substitute "that" or "those" for the second noun (as long as it's the same as the first one):

Logical Comparison

I prefer the novels of J.K. Rowling to those of Stephenie Meyer. ("Those" takes the place of "the novels.")

Though they look the same on most maps, the size of Alaska is actually twice that of Texas. ("That" takes the place of "the size.")

There are two main types of illogical comparison errors that appear on the SAT writing: comparisons between people and things and comparisons between specific type and all things of that type.

The first key rule is that you must compare people to people and things to things.

So to return to our first example, it's correct to compare Bob's restaurant and Jimmy's restaurant because they're both things or to compare Bob and Jimmy because they're both people but you can't compare Jimmy's restaurant and Bob or Bob's restaurant and Jimmy.

The second rule is that you can't compare something of specific type to all things of that type.

This rule may sound strange, but it doesn't make sense to compare one person with everyone—you would compare them with everyone else. You can't compare something with a group that includes that thing without specifying that you're talking about everything else in the group. Let's look at an example:

Incorrect: A cheetah is faster than any land mammal.

Correct: A cheetah is faster than any other land mammal.

Although most illogical comparisons questions on the SAT test one of these rules, you may see some that don't. In those cases, you'll have to use common sense to determine if a comparison is logical. For example, it makes sense to compare a train and a car, it doesn't make sense to compare a train and the length of a car.

Pay attention to exactly what the sentence is saying—it's easy to extrapolate the intended point and miss the error in the wording. Keep this SAT writing strategy in mind!

Modifier

Dangling Modifier

Misplaced Modifier

Subject (doer of the action)

Modifiers:

A modifier is a word or phrase that adds detail or description to a sentence. In the example sentences below, the modifiers are highlighted.

Examples:

I walked in and out of dozens of stores yesterday, searching for the perfect purse.

Shopping with Lisa today, I found a great purse.

While modifiers add detail and interest to sentences, they must be used carefully so that the reader understands the details being added. Writers generally make two major modifier mistakes: dangling modifiers and misplaced modifiers.

Dangling Modifiers:

A dangling modifier occurs when the subject of the modifier is unclear. Most dangling modifiers occur at the beginning of sentences, but they can also occur at the end.

Consider the sentence below and its revision (the modifiers are highlighted).

INCORRECT:

Having looked through the whole music store, the CD I wanted just wasn’t there.

From the way this sentence is written, it actually looks like the CD has been looking through the whole music store. Even though readers can probably guess that it is the writer who has looked through the whole music store, the dangling modifier makes the sentence unclear. We can correct the dangling modifier and make the sentence clearer by adding a subject for the modifier.

POSSIBLE REVISION:

Having looked through the whole music store, I realized that the CD I wanted just wasn’t there.

Misplaced Modifiers:

Misplaced modifiers occur when the subject of the modifier is unclear because the modifier is poorly placed. The reader may be unsure of what word the modifier is describing. The reader may even think the misplaced modifier is describing a different word than intended. Consider the sentence below and its revision (the modifier is highlighted).

INCORRECT:

The jacket was just too small in the store.

The placement of the modifier in the store implies that the jacket was too small in the store. If the writer wants to convey that the jacket suddenly changed sizes when worn in other locations, then the modifier’s placement in the sentence is correct. If the modifier is intended to specify that the author is talking about the jacket in the store, then this modifier should be moved.

POSSIBLE REVISION:

The jacket in the store was just too small.

Appositives

An appositive is a noun or pronoun — often with modifiers (white text)— set beside another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it. Here are some examples of appositives (the noun or pronoun will be in teal, the appositive will be in red).

Examples:

Your friend Bill is in trouble.

My brother's car, a sporty red convertible with bucket seats, is the envy of my friends.

The chief surgeon, an expert in organ-transplant procedures, took her nephew on a hospital tour.

An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it may also precede it.

Examples:

A bold innovator, Wassily Kandinsky is known for his colorful abstract paintings.

The first state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, Delaware is rich in history.

A beautiful collie, Skip was my favorite dog.

Punctuation of appositives

In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive; the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. When this is the case, do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive, then commas are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.

Example 1:

The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

Here we do not put commas around the appositive because it is essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "The popular US president was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We wouldn't know who the president is without the appositive.

Example 2:

John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

Here we put commas around the appositive because it is not essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We still know who the subject of the sentence is without the appositive.

Example 3:

John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband.

Here we do not put commas around either appositive because they are both essential to understanding the sentence. Without the appositives, the sentence would just be John Kennedy was quite different from John Kennedy. We wouldn't know what qualities of John Kennedy were being referred to without the appositive.

Non-Essential Elements

Some modifying elements of a sentence are essential, restricting the meaning of a modified term, while others are nonessential and don't restrict the modified term's meaning. These nonessential elements, which can be words, phrases, or clauses, are set off with commas or dashes.

Rule: A nonessential clause should be set off from the sentence by matching punctuation, such as two dashes or commas.

If you leave out the element or put it somewhere else in the sentence, does the essential meaning of the sentence change? If so, the element is essential; if not, it is nonessential.

Examples:

Nonessential: The average world temperature, however, has continued to rise significantly. (word)

Essential: The sixth-century philosopher Boethius was arrested, tortured, and bludgeoned to death. (word)

Nonessential: Company managers, seeking higher profits, hired temporary workers to replace full-time staff. (phrase)

Essential: The person checking tickets at the counter asked for a form of identification. (phrase)

Nonessential: My uncle, who is eighty years old, walks three miles every day. (clause)

Essential: The woman who interviewed you is my sister. (clause)

Dashes aren’t very common on the SAT, but they do come up. They can be used to mark off a non-essential clause or phrase (like a comma).

If dashes are used with non-essential clauses or phrases, you can’t mix them with commas. You have to go with either two dashes or two commas. Here’s an example:

Incorrect:

Ryan, an energetic teenager—can’t sit still during class.

Correct:

Ryan—an energetic teenager—can’t sit still during class.

Correct:

Ryan, an energetic teenager, can’t sit still during class.