I have been compiling resources to help teachers living in the US understand the languages of our students. You can read about that below:
Languages
Tips
Always verify the specific Spanish dialect your audience speaks to ensure effective communication. Spanish has significant regional variations, and using the wrong dialect can lead to misunderstandings.
For formal, written communication, Castilian Spanish is generally a safe bet as it’s widely understood and taught. However, for spoken communication, be sure to use the dialect of your audience.
When working with interpreters or translators, be sure to confirm they are familiar with the specific dialect of the person they are communicating with.
Spanish, also known as Castilian Spanish (Espan~ol or Castellano), is the official language in 20 countries and one territory, and is spoken as a minority language in many others. It is the second most-spoken native language globally, with over 485 million native speakers. It's the official language in:
South America: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Central America: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.
North America: Mexico.
Caribbean: Cuba, Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico.
Europe: Spain.
Africa: Equatorial Guinea.
Additionally, the United States has a significant Spanish-speaking population, and it’s widely spoken in other countries like Belize, Andorra, and Gibraltar.
Spanish is a dialect-rich language with significant variations in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. While speakers can often understand each other, mutual intelligibility can be difficult between speakers of very distant dialects, such as those from Spain and some regions of South America.
Castilian Spanish (from Spain) is the basis for formal, standardized Spanish. It's distinct for its use of the vosotros form for the second-person plural ("you all") and the pronunciation of 'c' (before 'e' or 'i') and 'z' as a 'th' sound.
Latin American Spanish is a broad category encompassing various dialects. Key differences include the general lack of the vosotros form (using ustedes instead) and the s-like pronunciation of 'c' and 'z'.
Major dialects with notable differences include Mexican Spanish, Argentinian Spanish (with its unique voseo pronoun and 'sh' sound for 'll' and 'y'), and Caribbean Spanish (known for its rapid pace and dropping of 's' sounds at the end of syllables).
Spanish has also been heavily influenced by other local languages in the regions where it's spoken. For instance, dialects in the Andes region of Peru and Bolivia have been influenced by indigenous languages like Quechua, while Spanish in the Philippines has been influenced by Tagalog.
Spanish primarily uses one alphabet and script, the Latin alphabet.
Written Spanish: The written form of Spanish is generally consistent across all regions. It's based on Castilian Spanish and is used in formal media, literature, and official documents.
Spoken Spanish: The spoken form varies significantly from country to country and even from town to town. This can be seen in differences in pronunciation, slang, and vocabulary. While a document written in Spanish can be read by Spanish speakers from almost anywhere, a conversation might be more challenging due to the regional variations in accent and colloquialisms.
Literacy rates are generally high across Spanish-speaking countries. For example, literacy in Spain is over 98%, and in many Latin American countries, it’s also above 90%. However, in some regions, particularly rural areas, literacy rates may be lower. For this reason, it's always a good idea to consider alternative methods of disseminating information, such as oral communication, visual aids, or simplified texts, especially when targeting audiences in low-literacy areas.
Translators without Borders Factsheet: https://drive.google.com/file/d/19TDedAazb4B_ti2GkpWf1hFKxr3Zx0Oz/view?usp=sharing
Tips
Confirm the specific dialect: When communicating with a Somali speaker, it is crucial to confirm which dialect they speak, as there are significant regional and clan-based variations.
Be aware of literacy rates: While literacy has improved, a significant portion of the population, especially in rural areas, may have low literacy. Consider using oral or visual communication alongside written materials.
Ask about preferred script: Although the official script is Latin-based, some Somali speakers, particularly older generations or those educated in certain regions, may be more comfortable with the Arabic script. Always ask their preference for written communication.
Somali (AfSoomaali) is an official language in Somalia and a national language in Djibouti and Ethiopia. It is also spoken in parts of Kenya, particularly in the North Eastern Province, and in significant diaspora communities around the world, including Europe, North America, and the Middle East. The total number of native speakers is estimated to be over 21 million.
Somali is a dialect-rich language with three main dialect groups, which have notable variations in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. The degree of mutual intelligibility between these dialects can vary, with some being more challenging for speakers of other dialects to understand.
Northern Somali: This is the most widely spoken dialect and forms the basis of Standard Somali. It is spoken by most people in Somalia, Djibouti, and the Somali-speaking region of Ethiopia.
Benaadir/Coastal Somali: This dialect is spoken on the coast from Mogadishu southwards. It has some distinct vocabulary and phonology and is generally intelligible to Northern Somali speakers.
Maay: This dialect is spoken in the inter-riverine regions of Somalia, primarily in the Bay and Bakool regions. It is considered a different language by many linguists and is not mutually intelligible with Northern or Benaadir Somali.
Somali has been influenced by a number of languages due to historical and geographical factors. Arabic has had a significant impact on its vocabulary due to centuries of trade and Islamic influence. Additionally, Italian and English loanwords are present, reflecting the colonial history of the region.
Somali has a standard written form, but historically, it was primarily an oral language.
Written Somali: The official written form, standardized in 1972, uses the Latin alphabet. This script is now widely taught and used in official documents, media, and literature.
Spoken Somali: The spoken form exhibits significant regional and clan-based variations, particularly in pronunciation and vocabulary. While a document written in Standard Somali can be read by a Somali speaker, a conversation may be more challenging due to these dialectal differences, especially between speakers of Northern Somali and Maay.
Other scripts: Before the adoption of the Latin script, the Osmanya script was developed for the Somali language but had limited use. Some older generations or communities may also use the Arabic script to write Somali, especially for religious texts.
Literacy rates in Somalia have historically been low, particularly among older generations and in rural areas. While the official literacy rate is reported to be around 49%, it is important to note that this can vary widely by region and age group.
When creating written materials, consider:
The target audience's literacy level: Written materials may not be the most effective way to disseminate information to all segments of the population.
Alternative communication methods: Use oral and visual communication (e.g., radio broadcasts, picture-based materials, and community meetings) to ensure information is accessible to everyone.
Translators without Borders Factsheet: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1d6k-gp8nvp6ldetQ3rAWL25nn949L-c6/view?usp=sharing
Tips
Confirm the specific dialect: While a "Standard Swahili" exists, it is crucial to confirm the specific dialect of your audience, especially for a spoken context. A speaker from Tanzania might have difficulty understanding a speaker from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) due to regional differences in vocabulary and pronunciation.
Consider literacy levels: While Swahili is a language with a formal written form, literacy rates vary across the countries where it is spoken. It is important to consider how useful written material will be and to use visual aids and oral communication for broader reach.
Be aware of the historical context: Swahili's history as a trade language and a lingua franca means it has absorbed vocabulary from many sources, including Arabic, Portuguese, and English. This can lead to variations and different understandings of certain words.
Swahili (Kiswahili) is a Bantu language with over 150 million speakers in East and Central Africa. It is the official or national language of several countries, including Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda. It is also widely spoken in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Burundi, Rwanda, northern Mozambique, and northern Zambia, among other regions. As the lingua franca of the East African Community, it is a crucial language for trade, communication, and regional integration.
Swahili is a dialect-rich language. While most dialects are mutually intelligible, some, like Kingwana in the DRC, are significantly different from the standard.
Kiunguja: This dialect, spoken in Zanzibar and on the Tanzanian coast, forms the basis of Standard Swahili (KiswahiliSanifu). It is the most widely recognized and taught form of the language.
Kimvita: A dialect from the Mombasa region of Kenya. While it shares many similarities with Standard Swahili, it has distinct pronunciation and vocabulary differences.
Up-country Swahili: In both Kenya and Tanzania, there are forms of Swahili spoken away from the coast, often influenced by local indigenous languages and sometimes less grammatically strict. These forms may also include a higher number of loan words from English (in Kenya) or other languages.
Kingwana: This dialect, spoken in the southeastern DRC, has absorbed a large number of French and local Congolese language words, making it less mutually intelligible with Standard Swahili.
Kingazija: This is the Comorian dialect, which is a separate language, though related to Swahili.
The Swahili language has been heavily influenced by Arabic due to centuries of trade and cultural exchange along the East African coast. As a result, many words, especially for abstract and religious concepts, are of Arabic origin.
The modern written form of Swahili uses the Latin alphabet. The language was historically written in the Arabic script (known as Ajamī) for centuries, and older documents and poetry may still be found in this form. The official adoption of the Latin script in the 20th century standardized the language for a broader audience.
Written and Standard Swahili: The standardized written form is based on the Kiunguja dialect and is used in formal settings, media, and literature. It is generally uniform across the countries that have adopted it.
Spoken Swahili: Spoken forms vary significantly by region. For example, the pace, accent, and vocabulary can be quite different between a speaker from coastal Tanzania and a speaker from inland Kenya or the DRC.
Literacy rates in Swahili-speaking countries vary. In Tanzania, for example, the adult literacy rate is quite high, over 80%. However, in countries like the DRC, literacy rates are lower. It is important to consider these statistics when planning communication strategies. For audiences with low literacy, oral and visual communication methods are often more effective.
Tips
Pashto is a separate language, not a dialect of Persian. Never assume a Pashto speaker will understand Persian (Dari/Farsi) or vice-versa.
Always verify the specific Pashto dialect of your audience. The differences in pronunciation between northern and southern dialects can be significant.
Be mindful of low literacy rates, particularly in rural areas. Oral and visual communication may be more effective than written materials alone. Ask the audience if they are more comfortable with written information in Pashto or another language.
Pashto (Pukhtoo or Pushto) is an Indo-Iranian language spoken by the Pashtun ethnic group. It is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan and a major regional language in Pakistan, particularly in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan provinces. It is also spoken by smaller communities in Iran, Tajikistan, and the United Arab Emirates. The total number of speakers is estimated to be between 40 and 60 million.
While all these languages belong to the larger Indo-Iranian language family, Pashto is a distinct language and is not mutually intelligible with Dari, Farsi, or Persian. It is a member of the Eastern Iranian branch, while Dari and Farsi are forms of the Western Iranian branch.
Farsi, Dari, and Persian: These names refer to the same language, though used in different regions. Farsi is the name for the language in Iran. Dari is the name for the language in Afghanistan. The term Persian is often used as a broader, overarching term for the language family. Farsi and Dari are considered dialects of the same language and are largely mutually intelligible, especially in their formal, written forms. Differences become more apparent in spoken, informal contexts, with variations in vocabulary and pronunciation.
Pashto's differences: Pashto's distinct linguistic features make it unintelligible to speakers of Dari or Farsi.
Phonology: Pashto has unique sounds not found in Dari/Farsi, such as aspirated consonants (sounds with a strong burst of air) and retroflex consonants (made by curling the tongue back). This gives Pashto a very different sound from the more fluid Dari and Farsi.
Grammar: Pashto has a different grammatical structure, including a split ergative system that changes verb forms based on whether an action is completed or ongoing. This is a significant difference from the grammar of Dari and Farsi.
Vocabulary: While Pashto shares some loanwords with Dari and Farsi (mainly from Arabic), a significant portion of its core vocabulary is unique.
Script: Although both languages use a modified Arabic script, the Pashto alphabet has 12 additional letters to represent its unique sounds, whereas Dari has only four additional letters.
Pashto has significant dialectal variation, primarily divided into two main groups:
Southern dialects: These are primarily spoken in southern Afghanistan (e.g., Kandahar). They are considered the basis for the standard written language and preserve the ancient /sh/ and /zh/ sounds.
Northern dialects: These are spoken in northern and eastern Afghanistan and in Pakistan (e.g., Peshawar). They often replace the /sh/ and /zh/ sounds with /kh/ and /gh/.
While there is an approximate 80% lexical similarity between the northern and southern varieties, the differences in pronunciation and some vocabulary can pose challenges for mutual intelligibility, especially for those not accustomed to other dialects.
Pashto uses a modified Perso-Arabic script with 44 letters. The written standard is largely based on the southern (Kandahari) dialect.
Written Pashto: The written language is more standardized than the spoken forms. A person who can read the Pashto script can generally read a document regardless of the dialect it's written in, though some words may be pronounced differently.
Spoken Pashto: The spoken language is highly diverse, with pronunciation and vocabulary varying by region and tribe. This is often a reflection of the Pashtun tribal structure.
Literacy rates among Pashtun communities are generally low, especially for women and in rural areas. While a precise figure is difficult to obtain, estimates suggest adult literacy is below 50% in both Afghanistan and Pakistan.
When providing information to a Pashtun audience, consider the following:
Written materials may not be the most effective method of communication.
Oral dissemination of information through radio broadcasts, community meetings, or personal communication is often more impactful.
Many Pashtun speakers may be more comfortable reading in Dari, Urdu, or English, depending on their educational background. It is important to ask which language they would prefer for written materials.
Tips
Kinyarwanda is a Bantu language, not a dialect of Swahili, French, or English. Never assume a speaker of one of those languages will understand Kinyarwanda.
Be aware of the historical context. Due to the 1994 genocide, some terms are sensitive or have changed in meaning. It's important to be mindful of vocabulary related to ethnicity and conflict.
Consider the specific audience. While Kinyarwanda is a national language, many people, especially in urban areas, also speak French or English. Asking about their preferred language is a good practice.
Kinyarwanda (Ikinyarwanda) is a Bantu language spoken by virtually all of Rwanda's population, making it one of the few African countries with a single national language. It is also a form of the language spoken in parts of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Uganda. A very similar, mutually intelligible language, Kirundi, is the national language of neighboring Burundi. The total number of speakers is estimated to be over 12 million.
Kinyarwanda has two primary dialects, Northern Kinyarwanda and Southern Kinyarwanda. The differences are mainly in pronunciation and tone.
Northern Kinyarwanda: This dialect is spoken in the north of Rwanda and is known for its high-toned pronunciation.
Southern Kinyarwanda: This dialect, spoken in the south, has a lower tone.
While these dialects have some variations, they are fully mutually intelligible, meaning speakers of both can understand each other without difficulty. The official, standardized form of Kinyarwanda is based on the dialect spoken around Kigali, the capital. Kinyarwanda is also a tonal language, meaning the pitch of a word can change its meaning. This is a crucial aspect of the language to understand but is not present in its close relation, Kirundi.
Kinyarwanda is part of the larger Bantu language family, which includes languages like Swahili. However, while they share some grammatical features, Kinyarwanda is not a dialect of Swahili, and the two languages are not mutually intelligible. Due to its history with Belgium, French and, increasingly, English have influenced Kinyarwanda, especially in urban areas.
Kinyarwanda uses the Latin alphabet, and its orthography is phonemic, meaning that words are spelled as they are pronounced. This makes the language relatively easy to learn to read.
Written Kinyarwanda: The official written form is standardized and used across the country. It is taught in schools and used in government and media.
Spoken Kinyarwanda: The spoken language is what is used in daily communication and may include more modern loanwords or slang. The variations between the northern and southern dialects are primarily noticeable in spoken conversation.
Rwanda has made significant strides in improving literacy, with an adult literacy rate of over 73%. However, this rate can be lower in rural areas and among older generations.
When providing written materials:
Written information is generally an effective method of communication due to the high literacy rate.
Consider using visual aids or oral communication to complement written materials, especially when targeting rural or low-literacy communities.
Many Rwandans also have a good command of French or English. It is always a good idea to ask your audience if they prefer to read information in Kinyarwanda, French, or English.
Tips
Nepali is not mutually intelligible with Hindi. While they share some similarities and are written in the same script, they are distinct languages. Do not assume a Nepali speaker will understand Hindi or vice-versa.
Be aware of literacy rates, particularly in rural and mountainous regions where they can be lower. Oral and visual communication may be more effective than written materials alone.
Confirm the specific audience's language proficiency. In many parts of Nepal, people are multilingual and may speak local dialects or other regional languages in addition to Nepali.
Nepali (Nepaˉlıˉ) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken as a native tongue by over 17 million people. It is the official language and lingua franca of Nepal. It is also a recognized official language in the Indian states of Sikkim and the Darjeeling district of West Bengal, as well as in northern Bhutan and parts of northern Myanmar. Significant Nepali-speaking diaspora communities exist around the world.
Nepali has several regional and social dialects, but they are generally mutually intelligible. The dialect spoken in Kathmandu is considered the standard and is used in media and education.
Kathmandu dialect: This is the standard form of Nepali, used in official communication and media.
Regional dialects: These are spoken in various regions of Nepal, such as the eastern, western, and mountainous regions. They have variations in pronunciation and some vocabulary, often influenced by local languages.
Nepali and other languages: While Nepali is part of the Indo-Aryan language family (which includes Hindi, Urdu, and Bengali), it is a distinct language. While it shares some vocabulary with Hindi, especially words of Sanskrit origin, a Nepali speaker would not be able to understand a Hindi speaker without prior exposure. The grammatical structures are different, and Nepali has a number of unique features.
Nepali has been influenced by Sanskrit, Tibetan, and various other languages spoken in the Himalayan region. Due to a long history with India and the UK, Nepali has also absorbed loanwords from Hindi and English.
Nepali is typically written in the Devanagari script (देवनागरी), the same script used for Hindi, Sanskrit, and Marathi. This script is written from left to right, and many of the letters have a horizontal line on top.
Written Nepali: The written form of Nepali is standardized and is used in formal communication, literature, and newspapers across Nepal and in Nepali-speaking regions of India.
Spoken Nepali: The spoken language, especially in rural areas, can differ from the standardized written form, with regional variations in pronunciation and vocabulary. This is where it's most important to be mindful of dialect differences.
Literacy rates in Nepal have been steadily increasing but remain a challenge in some areas. The national literacy rate is around 68%, but this number can be significantly lower in remote and rural regions and for women.
When creating written materials, consider:
Alternative communication methods: Use oral and visual communication (e.g., radio broadcasts, picture-based materials, and community meetings) to ensure information is accessible to everyone.
The target audience's literacy level: Written materials may not be the most effective way to disseminate information to all segments of the population.
Multilingualism: Many Nepali speakers are also fluent in local languages like Maithili, Bhojpuri, or Newar, and may prefer written information in a different language if they were educated in that language. It is always a good idea to ask for their preference.
Tips
Vietnamese is a tonal language. Tones are crucial for meaning. A word's meaning can change entirely depending on its tone.
Confirm the specific dialect. Northern, Central, and Southern dialects have significant differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and even some grammar.
Be aware of the historical context. The language has absorbed many loanwords from French and Chinese, and more recently, from English. This can lead to variations in vocabulary.
Vietnamese (Tie^ˊngViệt) is the official and national language of Vietnam. It is spoken by over 97 million people in Vietnam and by over 4 million people in significant diaspora communities around the world, particularly in the United States, Australia, and France. It is also a recognized minority language in Cambodia, Laos, and other countries.
Vietnamese is a tonal language with six distinct tones in the standard dialect. It is also characterized by significant regional differences, which can make communication challenging between speakers from different regions. The three main dialectal regions are:
Northern Vietnamese: The dialect of Hanoi, considered the standard for education and official communication. It has a more formal and clear pronunciation.
Central Vietnamese: Spoken in cities like Huế and Da Nang, this dialect is known for its more complex and distinct pronunciation and tones. It is often the most difficult for speakers of other dialects to understand.
Southern Vietnamese: The dialect of Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon), this dialect has a faster pace, a simpler tonal system, and a different vocabulary compared to the Northern dialect.
Despite these differences, a degree of mutual intelligibility exists, particularly in written communication. However, for a spoken context, a speaker from the North may have difficulty understanding a speaker from the South, and vice versa.
The Vietnamese language has a long history of influence from Chinese, particularly in vocabulary. During the French colonial period, French loanwords were integrated into the language, and more recently, English loanwords have become common, especially in technical and business contexts.
Vietnamese uses a single written form, Quốc ngữ, which is a Latin-based alphabet. This script was developed in the 17th century by Portuguese missionaries and was officially adopted in the early 20th century.
Written Vietnamese: The written language is standardized and is used throughout the country for official documents, literature, and media. The script uses diacritics to denote tones and additional letters, which is crucial for distinguishing word meanings.
Spoken Vietnamese: The spoken language varies significantly by region, affecting pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. For example, a speaker from Hanoi might use different vocabulary for everyday items than a speaker from Ho Chi Minh City.
Vietnam has a high literacy rate of over 95%, which makes written communication a very effective tool. The standardized Quốc ngữ script is taught in all schools.
When creating written materials:
Written information is generally a highly effective method of communication in Vietnam.
While the literacy rate is high, using clear and simple language is always best practice.
Consider adding visual aids to complement written materials, especially when communicating with a diverse audience.
Translators without Borders Factsheet: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1fPbDGmp4398iCuoKKL22MqUEL6zHUmAA/view?usp=sharing