Teaching according to GEORGE J. POSNER, KENNETH A. STRIKE, PETER W. HEWSON, and WILLIAM A. GERTZOG
- Is it realistic to expect science instruction to produce accommodation in students, rather than merely to help students make sense of new theories? And secondarily, should this be an expectation for all students, or only for certain groups, such as science majors?
1) An awareness of their fundamental assumptions and of those implicit in scientific theory;
2) A demand for consistency among their beliefs about the world;
3) An awareness of the epistemological and historical foundations of modern science;
4) Some sense of the fruitfulness of new conceptions.” (Posner et al., 1982, p. 225) all great stuff
**Content**
1) More emphasis should be given to assimilation and accommodation by students of that content than to content "coverage."
2) "Retrospective anomalies" should be included, particularly if historically valid anomalies are difficult to comprehend, or, as with the special theory, were not responsible for driving the conceptual change in the first place.
3) Sufficient observational theory should be taught for students to understand the anomalies employed.
4) Any available metaphors, models, and analogies should be used to make a new conception more intelligible and plausible.
**Strategies**
1) create cognitive conflicts in students.
- create the kind of cognitive conflict necessary as preparation for an accommodation, and whether labs could be used to help students experience anomalies (Stavy & Berkowitz, 1980).
2) spend a substantial portion of their time in diagnosing errors in student thinking and identifying defensive moves used by students to resist accommodation.
4) Help students make sense of science content by representing content in multiple modes ( e.g.,verbal, mathematical, concrete-practical, pictorial), and by helping students translate from one mode of representation to another (Clement, 1977).
5) Develop evaluation techniques to help the teacher track the process of conceptual change in students (e.g., the Piagetian clinical interview) (Posner & Gertzog, 1982).
**Teacher's Role**
1) teacher confronts the students with the problem arising from their attempts to assimilate new conceptions while maintaining it with regard to conceptions. (Posner et al., 1982, p. 226)
2) A model of scientific thinking.
Teaching according to Pratt 2002
- “An essential act of our profession is the crafting of curriculum and learning experiences to meet specified purposes.”(Pratt, 2002, p. 13)
- “We are also designers of assessments to diagnose student needs to guide our teaching and to enable us, our students, and others (parents and administrators) to determine whether we have achieved our goals.” (Pratt, 2002, p. 13)
- Who cares about our goals, what about the student's goals
- “The teaching is then thought of as enabling performance.”