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1.Phonology:
1.Phonology:
Phonology the study of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in languages
It focuses on the abstract or mental aspect of sounds, not the physical articulation.
It provides the abstract blueprint of sounds in our minds, allowing us to interpret words despite differences in how they are pronounced.
2.Phonemes:
2.Phonemes:
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish words from one another.
Ex: take - make, pin - pan,....
It is an abstract, stable sound type represented by a single written symbol (Ex: /t/).
If changing one sound results in a change of meaning, the sounds are distinct phonemes.
The phonemes will have no meaning, but when they combine together -> form a meaningful word.
Ex: /m/ /o/ /m/ => /mom/
Natural Classes
Natural Classes
A set of sound with the same phonetic features as voicing, place of articulation or manner of articulation.
Ex: From table
/d/ /g/ : voice, plosive -> natural classes
/g/ /v/ : voice -> natural classes
3.Phones and Allophones:
3.Phones and Allophones:
-Phone -> phonetic units ( physical sounds in speech ), appear in square brackets
-When multiple phones belong to the same phoneme, they are called allophones.
Ex: Allophonic rules for /k/
[kʰ]: Aspiration occurs at the beginning of a stressed syllable (e.g., cat).
[k]: Unaspirated occurs after /s/ or in syllable-final positions (e.g., skate).
[k̚]: Word finally (e.g., book).
Replace phonemes -> different pronunciation & meaning
Replace allophone -> different in pronunciation
a.Complementary Distribution
a.Complementary Distribution
When two allophones of a phoneme occur in different word positions, they are in complementary distribution.
b.Minimal Pairs and Sets
b.Minimal Pairs and Sets
A minimal pair is a pair of words that differ by only one phoneme (sound) in the same position
A minimal set is a group of words differentiated by changing one phoneme in the same position.
4.Phonotactics:
4.Phonotactics:
constraints on the sequence or position of sound in a language.
Ex: /s/, /t/, /k/ -> /st/, /sk/ ( study, skate, ...)
tsudy, ksate => no meaning
This type of exercise with minimal sets also allows us to see that there are definite patterns in the types of sound combinations permitted in a language.
5.Syllables
5.Syllables
a unit of sound must have a vowel or vowel-like sound, including diphthongs.
Syllables without a coda (ex: go, do, so,... ) are open;
with a coda (ex: up, on, in,...) are closed.
Basic elements:
+ Onset ( initial ) : can be empty or one or more consonant
+ Rhyme/rime:
-nucleus (a vowel or vowel-like sound)
-coda (final) : can be empty or one or more consonant
English syllables
English syllables
Vietnamese syllables
Vietnamese syllables
a.Consonant Clusters
a.Consonant Clusters
two or more consonants -> consonant cluster
In English, both onset and coda can have multiple consonants, forming clusters.
Larger onset clusters like /str/ in "stress" follow a pattern where the first consonant is /s/, followed by a voiceless stop and a liquid or glide.
Ex: C V C cat | kæt |
C C V C C plant | plɑːnt |
C C C V C C C scripts | skrɪpts |
6.Coarticulation Effects
6.Coarticulation Effects
Large consonant clusters are uncommon and may be reduced in casual speech due to coarticulation, where sounds blend together.
a.Assimilation
a.Assimilation
Assimilation is when one sound changes to match a nearby sound for ease of articulation.
Ex: Input /ˈɪnpʊt/ → /ˈɪmpʊt/
Have to /hæv tu/ → /hæf tu/
b.Nasalization
b.Nasalization
-> pronunciation of a sound with air flowing through the nose, opically before a nasal consonant
-> nasalization of vowels occurs when the vowel immidiately precedes or follows, a nasal consonant /m, n, ŋ/
Ex: "man" [mæ̃n]
c.Elision
c.Elision
Elision occurs when leaving out a sound segment in the pronunciation of a word (the fact of not pronouncing a particular sound in a word)
Ex: next day | nekst ˈdeɪ | => | neks ˈdeɪ | (the /t/ is elided)
d.Normal Speech
d.Normal Speech
Assimilation, nasalization, and elision are natural and regular aspects of speech.
7.Study Questions:
7.Study Questions:
1 In French, the words /bo/ for beau (“handsome”) and /bõ/ for bon (“good”) seem to have different vowels. Are these two vowels allophones or phonemes in French?
-> In French, /o/ (in "beau") and /õ/ (in "bon") are phonemes because they create minimal pairs and change the meaning of words, not allophones.
2 Which English phoneme has the features: –voice, +velar, +stop?
-> The phoneme /k/.
3 What is an aspirated sound and which of the following words would normally be pronounced with one?
kill, pool, skill, spool, stop, top
-> An aspirated sound is a consonant that is pronounced with a strong burst of air. In English, voiceless stops like /p/, /t/, and /k/ are aspirated when they appear at the beginning of a word or stressed syllable.
4 Does this phrase (big black bag) contain a minimal pair, a minimal set, or neither?
-> It contains a minimal set. The words "big," "black," and "bag" each differ by one phoneme and are distinct in meaning.
5 Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs?
ban, fat, pit, bell, tape, heat, meal, more, pat, tap, pen, chain, vote, bet, far, bun, goat, heel, sane, tale, vet
-> The minimal pairs are: ban – pan, fat – vat, pit – pat, tap – tap, pen – pan. They differ by one phoneme in the same position.
6 What is meant by the phonotactics of a language?
->Phonotactics refers to the rules governing permissible sound combinations in a language.
7 In the pronunciation of track, which sound(s) would be the nucleus?
-> In the word "track," the vowel sound [æ] is the nucleus of the syllable.
8 What is the difference between an open and a closed syllable?
-> An open syllable ends with a vowel sound (ex: "me"), while a closed syllable ends with a consonant sound (ex: "cup").
9 Is the nasal consonant in the everyday pronunciation of I can go alveolar or velar?
-> It is velar. The nasal sound changes to [ŋ] before the velar consonant [ɡ].
10 Which segments in the pronunciation of the following words are most likely to be affected by elision?
(a) government (b) postman (c) pumpkin (d) sandwich (e) victory
(a) government – the middle [v] and [ə] may be elided.
(b) postman – the [t] may be elided.
(c) pumpkin – the [p] in the second syllable may be elided.
(d) sandwich – the [d] may be elided.
(e) victory – the [t] may be elided.
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