Chapter 1:

The Origins of Language

We don't know exactly how language originated.
The exact origin of language remains unknown, though scholars hypothesize it emerged between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago.
Spoken language is believed to have developed far earlier than written language, which dates back roughly 5,000 years.

1.The Divine Source

In Genesis, God created Adam, who named every living creature, and whatever he called them became their names.

Argument for : + Herodotus reported that Egyptian Pharaoh Psammetichus conducted an experiment isolating two infants, who after two years spoke the Phrygian word "bekos," meaning "bread," rather than an Egyptian word.

+King James IV of Scotland reported isolated children spoke Hebrew, while Emperor Akbar found they produced no speech. Real cases like Victor and Genie confirm children raised in isolation develop no language, proving language isn't "spontaneous."

Argument against: + About a century later, Emperor Akbar the Great raised babies in silence and found they produced no speech. This result matches real cases where children raised in isolation grow up without any language.

2.The Natural Sound Source:

The idea that primitive words derive from imitations of the natural sounds that early men and women heard around them.

The "Bow-Wow" Theory

Early humans imitated and used sounds like "C AW- C AW" or "C O O- C O O" to refer to objects.
In English, in addition to cuckoo, we have splash, bang, boom, rattle, buzz, hiss, screech and of course bow-wow.
onomatopoeia : words similar to natural sounds.
It's hard to see how most of the soundless things (e.g. “low branch”) as well as abstract concepts (e.g. “truth”) could have been referred to in a language that simply echoed natural sounds.

The "Pooh-Pooh" Theory

speech developed from the instinctive sounds people make in emotional circumstances.
the original sounds of language may have come from natural cries of emotion such as pain, anger and joy.

Ex: Ouch! Ah!, Ooh!, Phew!, Wow! or Yuck!

Ouch! came to have its painful connotations. But Ouch!and other interjections such as Ah!, Ooh!, Phew!, Wow! or Yuck! are usually produced with sudden intakes of breath, which is the opposite of ordinary talk.

3.The Social Interaction Source

The "yo-he-ho" theory suggests language may have originated from sounds made during physical effort, like hums and grunts, used to coordinate group activities such as lifting or carrying heavy objects.
Argument for : Groups require communication → organization, even if it's just grunts and curses.
Argument against : Apes and primates → use grunts and social calls in social groups → have not developed the ability for speech

4.The Physical Adaption Source

Rather than focusing on sound types, we should consider the physical features humans possess.
Four-legged creatures have a one pace – one breath rhythm, while two-legged creatures can articulate longer on exhalations and have shorter inhalations, as breathing is not tied to walking rhythm.

→ the relationship between the rhythm of breathing and the rhythm of walking.

Human breathing while speaking is about 90% exhalation and 10% inhalation.
evolutionary development → compared to other primates → suggest a capacity for speech, though they don't guarantee it.

5. The Tool-Making Source

The Human Brain

The human brain is both large for its size and divided into two hemispheres, each with specialized functions.
Those functions that control the motor movements involved in complex vocalization (speaking) and object manipulation (making or using tools) are very close to each other in the left hemisphere of the brain.

6.The Genetic Source

born deaf children → become fluent in sign language early → suggests innate human capacity for language.

7.Study Questions

1 When did written language develop?

-> Written language developed about 5,000 years ago, long after the suspected development of spoken language.

2 When can we say the human auditory system has begun working?

-> The human auditory system is already functioning before birth (at around seven months).

3 What percentage of human breathing while speaking normally consists of in-breaths?

-> While speaking is about 90% exhalation with only about 10% of time saved for quick in-breaths.

4 What is the difference between the position of the larynx in humans and other primates?

-> In humans, the larynx is positioned lower in the throat compared to other primates, like monkeys, due to the upright posture humans developed.

5 Why are interjections such as Ooh! or Yuck! considered to be unlikely sources of human speech sounds?

-> Because they are usually produced with sudden intakes of breath, which is the opposite of ordinary

talk. We normally produce spoken language as we breathe out, so we speak while we exhale, not inhale.

6 What is the basic idea behind the “bow-wow” theory of language origin?

-> The "bow-wow" theory suggests language originated by humans imitating natural sounds to refer to the particular objects.

7 Why is it difficult to agree with Psammetichus that Phrygian must have been the original human language?

->It is difficult to agree with Psammetichus that Phrygian was the original human language because the children might not have learned the word from human sources at all. The reported word they uttered, "bekos," could have been influenced by the sounds made by the goats they were isolated with.

8 Where is the pharynx and how did it become an important part of human sound production?

-> The pharynx is a cavity located above the vocal folds. It became an important part of human sound production by acting as a resonator, which enhances the range and clarity of sounds produced by the larynx.

9 Why do you think that young deaf children who become fluent in sign language would be cited in support of the innateness hypothesis?

-> Because their ability to naturally acquire a fully developed language, despite not being exposed to spoken language, indicates that the human brain has an inherent, biologically-based capacity for language.

10 With which of the six “sources” would you associate the following quotation?

->Physical Adaptation Source.

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