The Elgin Marbles, also known as the Parthenon Marbles, are a collection of classical Greek marble sculptures that once adorned the Parthenon temple on the Acropolis of Athens. These sculptures were created by the renowned ancient Greek sculptor Phidias and his assistants between 447 and 438 BCE. The Elgin Marbles consist of various scenes from Greek mythology and legendary battles. The Elgin Marbles remained on the Parthenon at the Acropolis from the 5th century BCE until the 19th century.

The Ottoman Empire was established in present-day Turkey (recently renamed Turkiye) in the 13th century as a Muslim empire. It consolidated and expanded westward throughout the centuries, reaching Greece by the 15th century. When the Ottomans conquered the territory, they showed little respect for the Ancient Greek artifacts and buildings. During a conflict with the Holy League in the 17th century, the Ottomans even used the Parthenon as a storage house for ammunition. When the Venetians launched an attack on Athens, the ammunition housed in the Parthenon combusted, blowing out 28 of its columns and killing nearly 300 people in the vicinity. The Ottoman presence in Greece lasted several centuries, with varying degrees of local autonomy and resistance, until the Greek War of Independence, which began in 1821, marked a significant turning point. The Greeks eventually established the modern Greek state in the early 1830s. 

In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire faced numerous challenges, including internal strife, military defeats, and pressure from European powers seeking to influence or control various parts of the empire. The pressure from European states came from the empire's position at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, thus preventing access to military and economic routes. Over the centuries, such a vast empire suffered from what scholars refer to as imperial overstretch. Imperial overstretch is a concept that refers to the idea that an empire may become weakened or even collapse due to the excessive extension of its military, economic, and political commitments beyond its sustainable capacity. The concept suggests that an empire can experience decline and face internal strain when it overextends itself regarding territorial acquisition, military engagements, and general global influence. 

Though the U.S. is not an empire, many have noted that this concept could apply today as it is the hegemon. A hegemon is a dominant or preeminent state that exercises significant influence and power over other states or entities within a particular geopolitical system. A hegemon can shape the international order's rules, norms, and dynamics, often extending its economic, military, and political influence over various countries. But I digress... (we will discuss the role of the U.S. in the international system throughout the semester), back to the Ottomans.

During a period that marked a significant decline for the Ottoman Empire, the Russian Empire (ruled by Tsar Nicholas I) deemed the Ottomans to be the "Sick Man of Europe." It began expanding into its territory under the guise of protecting the rights of Christians under Muslim rule.  In 1853, the Ottomans declared war on Russia in response. It would have been a devastatingly quick war with Russia as victor, except that Britain and France stepped in to assist the Ottomans. They did not, however, do so out of kindness. Instead, they, too, wanted the strategic routes controlled by the Ottomans.  In 1856, the Crimean War ended in a stalemate. However, in real-world terms, the Ottomans were much weakened and now indebted to the British and French.

In the early 1800s, the Ottoman Empire was severely weakened while Britain expanded its influence throughout the region. In 1801, the British government sent an ambassador to Constantinople named Thomas Bruce. In addition to being a diplomat, he was also the 7th Earl of Elgin, a town in Scotland. Throughout Bruce's appointment, he would tour the areas under Ottoman control. As a collector of antiquities, he was most concerned with the classical temples and sculptures left in complete disrepair. When he found the Elgin marbles sitting within a dilapidated Pathernon, his original plan was to remove them, ship them to Britain, and have them decorate the lawn of his estate in Scotland. He secured a legal document from the Ottomans in 1801 for the marble to be excavated and relocated to Britain to “take away any pieces of stone with old inscriptions or figures thereon." 

As he began collecting a vast store of sculptures and fragments, the cost of excavating and moving them was so high that he eventually decided to sell the pieces to the British government for 35,000 pounds (or almost seven million dollars today). The Elgin marbles were moved to the British Museum in 1805, where they are still housed today. 

While at the British Museum, the marbles were formally named the Parthenon Marbles, though many still call them the Elgin Marbles. Among the 30 or so artifacts included within the Elgin Marbles are friezes (long decorative bands with images or designs, such as the one above), pediment sculptures (located in the triangle of a roof), standalone statues, and fragmented pieces of columns, crown molding, etc.

The Elgin marbles are not the only artifacts in dispute globally. Italy has been involved in its own efforts to repatriate looted artifacts, particularly antiquities. The U.S. has emphasized preserving and showcasing diverse cultural heritage in its museums, contributing to global education and understanding. Various Native American tribes and communities have sought the return of sacred objects and ancestral remains to indigenous lands currently held in U.S. museums. They argue that items were often acquired through colonial-era practices, looting, or unauthorized excavations. One notable case involves the controversy surrounding the Native American human remains and cultural artifacts held at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History. Specifically, the repatriation efforts have focused on the remains and associated funerary objects of the Kennewick Man. Kennewick Man, also known as the Ancient One, is the name given to the skeletal remains of a prehistoric Native American man found along the Columbia River near Kennewick, Washington, in 1996. The discovery triggered debates over the remains' cultural affiliation, ancestry, and legal disposition. UPDATE (in the real world! More info here): The Biden Administration passed a federal regulation that requires all museums to suspend the research on and public displays of human remains without the direct consent of descendants, indigenous American tribes, or Native Hawaiian organizations. In response, many U.S. museums (including the American Museum of Natural History) are closing or adapting existing exhibits.

In discussions related to the retention of cultural artifacts in international museums, Germany has emphasized the importance of preserving artifacts as part of the world's cultural heritage, promoting research, and facilitating global access to these items. One artifact that Germany has (in its Neues Museum in Berlin) is the bust of Nefertiti, a representation of Queen Nefertiti, the wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten, taken from Egypt in 1912 by the Germans just before World War I (when the Ottoman Empire was so weakened it was a name alone), and Egypt has sought the return of several artifacts with historical and cultural significance from various countries and institutions, including the British Museum. Supporting Greece would lend credence to its claims on the Rosetta Stone (a key artifact in deciphering ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs). The British took the Rosetta Stone from Egypt during colonial rule in 1802.

Below, you will find: (1) a key debate question, (2) a list of the 25 state and non-state actors that will be participating in this simulation, and (3) individual roles each student will play in this simulation. NOTE: for most modules, you will likely need to conduct outside research to be fully prepared to understand your group's role in the simulation.