Slavic Origins (5th-6th centuries): The Slavic people are believed to have originated in Eastern Europe, likely somewhere between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea. Over time, the Slavic people expanded and migrated eastward, eventually reaching the territory of modern-day Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus in the 5th and 6th centuries. 

Kyivan Rus (9th-13th centuries): By the 9th century, the early Russian state, Kyivan Rus, emerged centered around Kyiv. Kyivan Rus was the name of the early East Slavic state that emerged in the 9th century, centered around the city of Kyiv, located in present-day Ukraine. The Kyivan Rus state was a loose confederation of principalities ruled by a grand prince. It was a significant power in Eastern Europe for several centuries, engaging in trade with other regions and converting to Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Throughout this time, one grand prince, Rurik, from the principality of Novgorod near the Baltic Sea, dominated the other principalities. His family line would continue to lead Russia through the 17th century until the Romonovs took power.

Mongol Rule (13th century): The Mongol Invasion of Rus occurred in the 13th century, significantly impacting the political landscape of Eastern Europe. The Mongol Empire, led by Genghis Khan, expanded rapidly across Asia, eventually reaching the borders of the Kyivan Rus state. The Mongols invaded the Kyivan Rus territories, sacking cities like Kyiv and inflicting heavy casualties. This invasion period is often called the "Mongol Yoke" due to the dominance and control exercised by the Mongols over the region. While the invasion caused widespread destruction and devastation, it also led to a shift in power within the area. Moscow, a relatively minor principality then, avoided confrontation with the Mongols. 

Moscow’s Rise (13th -14th centuries) While many other Russian city-states suffered greatly under Mongol rule, Moscow negotiated favorable terms and established itself as a reliable ally. Thus, it was able to maintain a degree of autonomy. Over time, Moscow's position grew more robust, and it gradually annexed neighboring principalities, solidifying its dominance in the region. By the late 14th century, Moscow had emerged as the leading center of power in the Russian lands, setting the stage for its rise as the capital of the future Russian state. 

Ivan the Terrible (16th century) - Ivan the Terrible was the last Rurik dynasty to rule before the Romonovs took control of Russia. He came to power young, succeeding his father, Vasili III. Ivan's reign was marked by military expansion, political repression, and personal instability. He was known for his cruelty and paranoia, which led to the deaths of many of his opponents and even his son. Despite these excesses, Ivan the Terrible is also credited with expanding the Russian Empire and strengthening its position as a European power.  After his death, Russia faced a power vacuum, a condition when a government has no central authority to govern, and politics falls into chaos as potential power-hungry actors attempt to vie for control. The situation was further complicated by the invasion of Polish-Lithuanian forces, who sought to exploit Russia's internal weakness and establish their control over the country. This invasion led to a period of civil war and foreign occupation.

The Romanov Dynasty (1617-1917) - The Russian nobles and clergy hosted a political gathering called the Assembly of the Land in 1613 to prevent a complete foreign takeover and restore stability. After deliberations, the assembly chose Mikhail Romanov, a 16-year-old son of the leading religious leader in the Eastern Orthodox Church in Moscow. Mikhail Romanov was crowned Tsar Mikhail I in 1613, marking the beginning of nearly three hundred years of the Romanov dynasty's reign. The Romanov dynasty's reign had a profound impact on world history. Their rule oversaw a significant expansion of the Russian Empire, with conquests in Eastern Europe, Siberia, and the Far East. This territorial growth positioned Russia as an essential player on the global stage. Additionally, the Romanov dynasty's era witnessed substantial cultural and economic development within Russia. 

For instance, Peter the Great's (1682-1725) reforms modernized the country and introduced Western influences, transforming Russia into a significant European power. During his reign, he modernized Russia, expanded territory, and established a new capital city, St. Petersburg, to symbolize Russia's westward orientation. Peter successfully engaged in wars against neighboring powers by modernizing the Russian military. He fought against Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700-1721), gaining access to the Baltic Sea. He also waged wars against the Ottoman Empire, expanding Russia's southern borders, and established colonies in the Pacific Ocean, such as Kamchatka and the Aleutian Islands, marking the beginning of Russia's expansion into Asia.

Another exceptional Rromonov ruler was Catherine the Great. She came to power in 1762 through a coup d'état that deposed her husband, Peter III, due to political and personal disagreements (she disagreed with his policies and genuinely thought she could rule better). She was, in fact, very successful, and her reign was marked by a period of significant cultural, political, and economic development in Russia, as she was a patron of the arts and sciences and implemented a series of reforms aimed at modernizing Russia and strengthening its position as a European power. During her reign, she also expanded the Russian Empire, including the conquest of the Crimea peninsula (we will learn more about that below) and other territories in the Black Sea region, solidifying Russia's control over the southern steppes. She also extended Russian influence into Central Asia, annexing territories such as Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Tsar Nicholas I would ultimately lead a defeat against the Ottomans in the Crimean War in 1853, gaining the peninsula once again.

However, social inequality, political repression, and economic challenges also marked the Romanov dynasty's reign. The system of serfdom left nearly 80% of the population with the Russian Empire to serve as forced labor on land owned by a small group of elites. These workers had limited rights and freedoms, were forced to work long hours, and they could be punished or even killed for disobedience. Though Tsar Alexander formally abolished the serf system in 1861, many of the problems inherent in this system persisted. Though technically free to leave their lands, many individuals who had been serfs were not part of the market economy and had no means to relocate, purchase land, and begin their own lives independently from the landowners. Instead, many were forced to remain in serf-like arrangements. When land was reallocated to serfs, it was too little to sustain livelihoods, leading to continued poverty and hardship. Socially, former serfs often faced discrimination and prejudice from the nobility and other members of society.

The abolition of serfdom in Russia played a significant role in the Bolshevik Revolution and overthrowing the Romanov dynasty. Serfdom's inequality contributed to growing discontent around Romonov's rule. Vladimir Lenin, a Russian Marxist studying and publishing on Communism in Germany until he was exiled, returned to Russia to foment revolution. Lenin advocated for a socialist revolution to overthrow the tsarist regime and establish a new society based on equality and social justice. Lenin's message resonated with many Russians disillusioned with the existing political and economic system. The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, led by Lenin, ultimately overthrew the Romanov dynasty and established a socialist state, the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, or USSR.

Putin's View of Russia's Empirical History - Before moving forward in time from the Russian empire, it is essential to understand that Vladimir Putin views this map above as Russia's rightful territory. In an article written by President Putin in 2021, he outlines his justification for the invasion of Ukraine using a unique perspective on the history outlined above. First, he argues that during the Rurik dynasty, Russia controlled the territory of Ukraine (and Belarus). In this article, he writes that "Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians are all descendants of Ancient Rus... as Slavic tribes and other tribes across the vast territory ... were bound together by ... economic ties, the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty, and – after the baptism of Rus – the Orthodox faith." Though he admits that the Mongol invasion severely weakened the Rurik dynasty and resulted in the loss of territories, including that of present-day Ukraine (which was divided by powers from Lithuania, Poland, and an independent state in Crimea), he emphasized that prophets held the territory around Kyev (the capital of Ukraine) to be "the mother of all Russian cities" and even when the territory of Ancient Russia fell into "decline of central rule and fragmentation.. both the nobility and the common people perceived Rus as a common territory, as their homeland."

Next, he turns to the period of rapid expansion of the Russian Empire under Catherine the Great, in which "following the wars with the Ottoman Empire, Russia incorporated Crimea and the lands of the Black Sea region" (the territory that is part of present-day is Ukraine, Belarus, and also Lithuania). He explained that this territory soon became "populated by people from all of the Russian provinces." He also notes in the article that " the single state was not merely the result of political and diplomatic decisions. It was underlain by the common faith, shared cultural traditions, and – I would like to emphasize it once again – language similarity." Here, he appears to justify this territorial acquisition as an act of unification. 

Finally, in response to clear differences among the people within the Ukrainian and Russian territories, including dialects and distinct languages, he counters that many cultural icons write in both languages and responds, "How can this heritage be divided between Russia and Ukraine? And why do it?" When pointing the blame on how this division came to be, he places the blame on the Polish elites who ruled the territory when it was not under Russian rule.

Russsian Revolution (1917) - The toppling of the Russian Empire and the subsequent rise of the Soviet Union was a complex process shaped by both internal and external factors. First, as mentioned above, though serfdom had been abolished, nearly four out of five Russians existed as peasants, living as subsistence farmers either on less able land or on the land owned by wealthy elites. When Vladimir Lenin, a Russian Marxist, returned home to foment a Communist revolution, his message resonated with many Russians disillusioned with the existing political and economic system. 

Second, this message of revolution coincided with World War I.  The monarchy had just engaged in and lost an expensive and humiliating defeat in war with a newly industrialized and powerful Japan in 1905. Less than a decade later, World War I started when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. As Serbia is also a Slavic nation, Tsar Nicholas II entered the war to support Serbia. At the time, he underestimated the military might of Austria-Hungary and its ally Germany. Once bogged down into war, Tsar Nicholas relied on sending more and more troops into battle as his only advantage. Estimates vary, but between 12 and 13 million Russian troops fought in World War I between 1914 and 1918. Many of these troops were poorly equipped, underfed, and faced harsh weather conditions. Disaffected soldiers who returned home only contributed to the growing discontent with Romonov rule. 

When riots broke out in the Spring of 1917 in St. Petersburg over food scarcity, the local garrison refused to establish order through force. Tsar Nicholas II fled, abdicating his throne and ending more than three centuries of the Romanov family’s dynastic rule. The Russian Empire was formally overthrown in an event known as either the October or Bolshevik Revolution that same year. On November 6 and 7, 1917 (or October 24 and 25 on the Julian calendar), Vladimir Lenin and his political party, the Bolsheviks, launched a coup d’état.

Establishment of the Soviet Union (1922) - In 1922, Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin restructured Russia into a federation comprising four republics: the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. The first two had more local autonomy, while the latter were more centralized. These republics were unified under the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or Soviet Union. The word "Soviet" describes the councils that governed each republic. Lenin, influenced by Karl Marx, envisioned a state-led economy (hence "Socialist") that still offered open elections for council members ("republics"). However, the Bolsheviks soon established the Communist Party, becoming the sole political entity by the late 1920s. Joseph Stalin, consolidating power after Lenin died in 1924, defeated rival Leon Trotsky in a power struggle. Trotsky advocated for spreading Communism globally through voluntary acceptance, while Stalin favored imposing Communism within Russia. Stalin's victory came through political maneuvering and purges, solidifying his leadership by 1928. Trotsky was later assassinated in Mexico with an ice pick (!).

Stalin's Five-Year Plans (1928-1958) - Stalin’s primary focus as the new leader of the USSR was to transform it from an agricultural state into a first-rate industrial Communist power. To do so, he brought the entire economy under state control and abolished all private ownership. Everything was in service of growing a large industry, and the state dictated all supply and demand in the market. This is otherwise known as a command economy. The result was to make the USSR more industrial, but this was at the expense of farming and small businesses. As the government required families to join in large collectives to produce agriculture more massively, in 1928, 97% of the farms were privately owned in the USSR, but by 1933, 83% were collectives. The collectives never have brought the efficiency anticipated. For example, grain production was 32 percent below average. Farm production did not meet the anticipated levels, partly because these large collective structures were not ideal locations for the farmers, and the artificially low prices disincentivized production. Further, Stalin used much of the agricultural goods produced for export to further finance industry or to provide food for the urban areas. This led to many of these collectives needing more food.

Ukrainian Famine (1931) - In 1931, a famine erupted, especially in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, the greatest grain-producing area in the world (and still is today). Known as Holodomor,  Ukrainian for "death by hunger," this famine directly resulted from Stalin's forced collectivization and grain requisitioning policies, which disrupted agricultural production and distribution and led to food shortages. Once food shortage occurred, Stalin's government continued confiscating grain and other foodstuffs from Ukrainian peasants to meet unrealistic quotas, leaving them without enough food to survive. During the Holodomor, millions of Ukrainians died from starvation and related causes. Estimates of the death toll vary widely, but scholarly consensus puts the number of victims in the millions, with some estimates ranging from 3 to 7 million deaths. The Holodomor had a profound and lasting impact on Ukrainian society and identity, as it is widely viewed as an attempt by Stalin to crush Ukrainian nationalism and resistance to Soviet rule, as well as to eliminate perceived threats to his authority. The famine remains a deeply sensitive and controversial topic, both within Ukraine and internationally, and is recognized by many countries and organizations as a genocide against the Ukrainian people.

Stalin's "Great Purge" - Stalin also consolidated his political power by turning against members of the Communist Party in an act called the "Great Purge." In 1937, he launched a campaign of terror directed at eliminating anyone who threatened his power. Thousands of old Bolsheviks who helped stage the Revolution in 1917 stood trial and were executed or sent to labor camps. When the Great Purge ended in 1938, Stalin had gained total control of the Soviet government and the Communist Party. His reaction to protests over economic reforms and his political reign of terror is estimated to have resulted in the death of 8 to 13 million people. Totalitarianism describes a government that takes total, centralized state control over every aspect of public and private life. Thus, totalitarianism seeks to erase the line between government and society. It has an ideology or beliefs that all citizens are expected to approve. A dynamic leader and a single political party often lead it. Mass communication technology helps a totalitarian government spread its aims and support its policies. Also, surveillance technology makes it possible to keep track of the activities of many people. Finally, violence, such as police terror, discourages those who disagree with the goals of the government.

Putin was KGB - At 37 years old, Putin was stationed at the local Russian intelligence headquarters in Dresden as a KGB agent when the Berlin Wall came down. As an angry crowd formed around the KGB headquarters, Putin incinerated any compromising information and then went outside and warned the mob of people that armed guards inside the building were prepared to open fire on the crowd. There were none, but the bluff worked. By 1991, Putin had officially resigned from the KGB’s active reserve. He was back in Leningrad, now called St. Petersburg, and working for the city's first democratic mayor (and his former law professor), Anatoly Sobchak, who was known to have strong authoritarian tendencies. After Sobchack was not reelected in 1996, Putin and his family relocated to Moscow. 

His Sketchy Rise to Power - He quickly climbed the ladder and became the head of the FSB (Federal Security Services), the agency that succeeded the KGB in 1998. Boris Yeltsin, then the president of Russia, named Putin to this position. As one Newsweek article described, “a job the president would have given only to the most trusted of aides.” In August 1999, Yeltsin appointed Putin as prime minister of Russia, the second-highest-ranking official, and reported to the president. A month after becoming prime minister, Putin responded to the attacks on four apartment buildings in Moscow that killed more than 300 people. Putin responded to these attacks by ensuring that those responsible would be “rubbed out, even if they’re in the outhouse,” and launched a renewed war against the breakaway republic of Chechnya. The resulting wave of approval, stoked by fear of terrorism, carried Putin to the presidency months later when Boris Yeltsin stepped down as President. As Politico explains it, “On New Year’s Eve 1999, Yeltsin—battered by booze, multiple heart attacks and semi-open rebellion by a Russian military furious over NATO’s muscle-flexing—abruptly resigned.” After resigning, Yeltsin appointed Putin to succeed him as president. 

Reliance on Oil - One of the most crucial aspects of Russia's economy is that it is based on oil and natural gas exports. These have historically comprised over 60% of Russia's exports and 30% of its GDP. The problem for Russia, however, is that other countries (including the U.S.) have begun to lessen their dependence on oil imports, and Russia’s foreign policy exacerbated these concerns. As Russia threatened to cut off oil supplies to Ukraine in 2006 and 2009 (as Ukraine looked at becoming closer to Europe), this threat only convinced more and more Ukrainians that Russia might not be a reliable partner. In 2012, as oil prices plummeted worldwide (following breakthroughs in fracking and more countries, like Nigeria, increasing production), there was deep concern among Putin’s inner circle. One Atlantic article notes, “As the economic pie gets smaller, the elites are cannibalizing one another in the struggle over whatever resources remain, and can be squeezed out of the population.”

NATO Continues After the Cold War - Before the fall of the Berlin Wall, NATO had been a static organization, with its mere presence serving as deterrence for the Soviet Union. Thus, far from being an era in which NATO was no longer relevant after the Cold War was over, a newly-evolved NATO cooperation was militarily active for the first time. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia had given way to the rise of nationalism and ethnic violence. Though at first, the Allies hesitated to intervene, eventually, NATO carried out an air campaign in September 1995 that played a major role in ending the conflict. When ethnic tensions erupted again in Kosovo in 1998, again, NATO played a key role. For Russia, Kosovo marked a turning point in U.S.-Russian relations. NATO acted without the direct authorization of the United Nations Security Council in Kosovo and directly against Russian interests. Subsequent enlargement rounds have since brought more states into NATO – Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania in 2004, and Croatia and Albania in 2009. In May 2002, Ukrainian President Leonid Kuchma announced the country’s goal of eventual NATO membership, and in 2004, a NATO-Ukraine Action Plan was adopted to deepen and broaden the NATO-Ukraine relationship and to support Ukraine’s reform efforts on the road towards Euro-Atlantic integration.

Ukraine Wanted Independence (& Putin Always Protested This) - In reality, in 1991, over 90 percent of Ukrainians voted to declare independence from the Soviet Union, and even preceding the referendum, several important developments had taken place in Ukraine, including the dissolution of the Communist Party and the development of the infrastructure for separate Ukrainian armed forces. Shortly thereafter, the U.S.S.R. was formally disbanded. Even as Ukraine achieved independence and enjoyed economic growth, the question of how closely it aligned with the West or the East (Russia) remained. In the 2000s, Ukraine attempted a constant balancing act. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Ukraine took notable steps away from Russia, including unsuccessfully seeking membership in NATO in 2002 and the European Union (EU) in 2003. Russia under Putin, however, continued to meddle in Ukraine’s affairs. 

Ukraine's Orange Revolution (2004) - In the 2004 presidential election, the Kremlin-backed pro-Russian candidate Viktor Yanukovych. The opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko, attempted to run on an anti-corruption platform. In September, the pro-Western Yushchenko’s health began to fail, and medical tests later revealed he had suffered dioxin poisoning, which left his face disfigured. Though Yanukovych (Putin's pick) was initially declared the winner, Yushchenko’s supporters staged mass protests that became known as the Orange Revolution. Protesters clad in orange (Yushchenko’s campaign color) took to the streets, and the country endured nearly two weeks of demonstrations. Ultimately, the pro-Western Yushchenko defeated the pro-Russian Yanukovych by garnering 52 percent of the vote, and Viktor Yushchenko was inaugurated in January 2005. 

Euromaidan (2013) - Though unsuccessful in 2004, the pro-Russian Yanukovych ran for President again in the 2010 election and won. In 2013, he overturned a long-negotiated trade agreement with the European Union at the behest of Putin. Instead, Putin asked him to join Russia's Eurasian Customs Union (ECU) with Belarus, Kazakhstan (and later Armenia). When news broke in November 2013 in Ukraine that the pro-Russian president had refused the trade agreement with the European Union, this decision sparked peaceful protests in the capital city of Ukraine, Kyiv, specifically in Independence Square. Early activists dubbed the meeting as Euromaidan (or Europe square). Though estimates differ, it is suggested that the protests began at around 50,000 people and expanded to between 400,000 and 800,000 people by December of 2013. Protests had expanded to Lviv, a large western city near the border with Poland. It is believed that on November 30th, the government responded with a crackdown on protesters in Independence Square. The following day, several riots began in Kyiv in response, and protesters began setting up military-style barricades. Soon, the government brought gangs of armed men to Kyiv from other cities, principally Kharkiv and Donetsk. They burned cars, beat protesters, and kidnapped prominent journalists. On the opposition side, local militias formed, based partly on rightist groups such as the Freedom Party. The average protesters were no longer the 20-something students but more hardened 30- and 40-year-olds, many from western Ukraine. Pro-Euromaidan activists took over government buildings in Kyiv and throughout Ukraine. The following day, however, Yanukovych fled to Crimea.

Russia Annexes Crimea (2014) - Protests began in Ukraine's Crimea peninsula following the pro-European Parliamentary. Crimea neighbors Russia, it is home to a warm water port, and it has been historically important to the Russian Empire, the Soviets, and Putin. As such, when the regional government in Crimea voiced its support for the new federal government in Kyiv on February 23rd, 2014, tens of thousands of Russian units in uniforms (without Russian flags) invaded Ukraine. When asked about this invasion, Putin denied they were Russian, though they spoke Russian and had clear signs of the flags being removed from their uniform and vehicles. Putin initially denied the invasion as he was uncertain about how the Obama Administration and other world leaders would respond. When nothing happened, however, Putin admitted to being a part of this government takeover of Crimea. A month after invading, he insisted on a referendum for Crimea to decide it wanted to become part of Russia. With Russian troops stationed throughout the Peninsula, the Russian's reported the referendum resulted in more than 95% of voters supported joining the Russian Federation. The Republic of Crimea declared its independence from Ukraine and signed a treaty of accession to the Russian Federation. The referendum was challenged at the United Nations in a General Assembly Resolution. The government in Kyiv also rejected the results, and the United States and the EU imposed asset freezes and travel bans on numerous Russian officials.

Russia Annexes Crimea (2014) - Once Crimea was securely under Russian control, Putin began invading the eastern region of Ukraine, known as Donbas. The Russian occupation of the region was supported by Ukrainian citizens in support of Russian occupation, making this region especially difficult.

Zelensky Comes to Power & Russian Build-Up On the Border (2019-2022) - Things had been at a standstill for nearly a decade when, in 2019, Volodymyr Zelensky was elected president of Ukraine. In his hit television show Servant of the People, the actor and comedian portrayed an everyman who followed an unlikely path to the presidency. In September 2020, Zelensky approved a new national security strategy that unambiguously labeled Russia as an aggressor and identified NATO membership as one of Ukraine’s essential defense and foreign policy goals. Between October and November 2021, Russia began a massive buildup of troops and military equipment along its border with Ukraine. 

Russia's Invasion (2022) - In early February 2022, satellite imagery showed that as many as 190,000 Russian troops were encircling Ukraine and warned that a Russian incursion was imminent. Putin dismissed these accusations and claimed an accompanying Russian naval buildup in the Black Sea was a previously scheduled exercise. On February 21, 2022, Putin responded by recognizing the independence of the self-proclaimed People’s Republics of Donetsk and Luhansk in the east of Ukraine and ordered Russian troops into Ukrainian territory as “peacekeepers.” Early negotiations between the United States, Russia, and European powers—including France and Germany—failed to bring about a resolution. Literally, in the middle of a last-ditch UN Security Council meeting to dissuade Russia from attacking Ukraine, Putin announced the beginning of a full-scale land, sea, and air invasion of Ukraine, targeting Ukrainian military assets and cities across the country. Putin claimed that the goal of the operation was to "demilitarize and denazify" Ukraine and end the alleged genocide of Russians in Ukrainian territory. There had been no previous claims that Zelensky and his government were pro-Nazis (Zelenksy himself being Jewish and elected via democratic means). In response, the U.S. President, Joe Biden, declared the attack “unprovoked and unjustified” and issued severe sanctions against top Russian officials, Russia's largest banks, and the Russian oil and gas industry in coordination with European allies. On March 2, 141 of 193 UN member states voted to condemn Russia’s invasion in an emergency UN General Assembly session, demanding that Russia immediately withdraw from Ukraine.

Why It Wasn't a Quick Victory - The war has dragged on much longer than anyone anticipated. From the beginning, Putin assumed a quick victory. However, several factors prevented an early success. First, the Russian invasion planning was left only to a few within Putin's inner circle. As a result, the detailed logistics of a ground invasion were not considered. For example, the Russian military equipment was considerably outdated and ill-equipped for a quick invasion, and many of the Russian troops did not know they would be fighting their neighbor and former ally until the invasion began. As a result, there was low morale and mass defection in the early days of the war.  In addition to the poor planning by the Russians, the Ukrainians proved far more resilient and ready to do whatever it took to defend their territory (read here an article on Ukrainian grandma's making Molotov cocktails). In addition, the international community quickly rallied behind Ukraine, imposing further sanctions and providing military aid. This support has helped to bolster Ukraine's military capabilities and prolong its resistance.

Since this initial invasion, the Russian army has continued a two-year-long assault on Ukraine, resulting in civilian deaths, war crimes, mass refugee crisis, concerns of nuclear escalation, and an increasingly costly war many argue is over the future of democracy around the globe. Though Ukraine has continued to prolong the war, and even launched a counteroffensive this summer, the future is far from certain.