Ancient Civilizations: Timeline
(3500 BCE → 1500 CE)
(3500 BCE → 1500 CE)
From the rise of the first civilizations (c. 3500 B.C.) through to the 20th-century discoveries, fully color-coded and with embedded reference links. This would not have been possible without the help of ChatGPT. Thanks!
A high-level, quick‑orientation map of global history with color‑coded themes and regions. It includes a section on rediscoveries, and a list of web references.
Themes →
🔵 State/Empire •
🟣 Religion/Ideas •
🟠 Trade/Tech/Science •
🟢 Art/Architecture •
🔴 Conflict/Migration •
🟡 Environment/Climate
Regions →
🔶 NENA (Near East & North Africa) •
🔷 EUR/MED (Europe & Mediterranean) •
🟩 SA (South Asia) •
🟥 EA (East Asia) •
🟪 SEA (Southeast Asia) •
🟫 SSA (Sub‑Saharan Africa) •
🟦 AMR (Americas) •
⬛ CA (Central Asia) •
🟧 OCN (Oceania)
Each bullet: date(s) — event · why it matters (link)
Icons always appear in the order Themes → Regions.
Civilization began not with a roar, but with a fence and a furrow. Roughly 5,000 years ago, in the river valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus, humanity made a radical wager: we traded the precarious freedom of the hunter-gatherer for the security of city walls. This was our first great compromise. We accepted hierarchy, taxation, and labor in exchange for predictable grain and the protection of the state.
For the first few millennia, our existence was defined by the attempt to bind chaos. We built monuments to eternity, hoping stone could outlast death, and we invented writing—the most significant technology in our history. Suddenly, memory was no longer biological; it was external. We could converse with the dead and legislate for the unborn.
Then came the "Axial Age," where the focus shifted inward. Thinkers from Greece to China—Socrates, the Buddha, Confucius—discovered individual conscience. We began to ask why we lived, not just how to survive. Philosophy and universal religions replaced local tribal deities, offering a framework for ethics that transcended borders.
The final act of this 5,000-year drama was the explosion of the scientific and industrial revolutions. We shifted from understanding nature to mastering it. We replaced myth with mathematics, and prayer with penicillin.
In a relatively short span, we have journeyed from mud-brick huts to the edge of the solar system. Yet, our moral progress has not kept pace with our technical prowess. We possess the power of gods but retain the impulses of primates—a dangerous asymmetry that defines our current moment. We have conquered the night, but we are still afraid of the dark.
c. 3500–3300 — Uruk urban expansion (White Temple/Anu ziggurat) crystalizes the first great city. 🟢🔵 🔶 (Uruk period)
c. 3500–3300 — Wheeled vehicles & plough diffuse in Mesopotamia; leap in transport/agriculture. 🟠 🔶 (History of technology—wheel)
c. 3500–3200 — Naqada II consolidation in Predynastic Egypt; elite iconography and long‑distance trade. 🔵🟢 🟠 🔶 (Naqada culture)
c. 3500–3000 — Gulf routes (Dilmun/Magan precursors) tie Mesopotamia to Arabia/Iranian littorals. 🟠 🔶⬛ (Dilmun)
c. 3400–3200 — Proto‑cuneiform tablets at Uruk; administration & record‑keeping take off. 🟠 🔶 (Cuneiform origins)
c. 3400–3200 — Earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs; parallel script emergence to Sumer. 🟠 🔶 (Egyptian hieroglyphs)
c. 3400–3000 — Maykop/Maikop culture metallurgy links Caucasus–steppe–Near East. 🟠 🔵 ⬛ (Maykop culture)
c. 34th c. — Cylinder‑seal & accounting iconography standardizes authority and exchange. 🟢🟠 🔶 (Seals of Mesopotamia)
c. 3300–3000 — Jemdet Nasr period: polychrome pottery, centralized administration beyond Uruk. 🟠🔵 🔶 (Jemdet Nasr)
c. 3300–2300 — Liangzhu culture (Lower Yangtze) masters jade ritual forms & hydraulic works. 🟢🟠 🔵 🟥 (Liangzhu culture)
c. 3300–2600 — Early Harappan phases (Ravi/Kot Diji) foreshadow Indus urbanism. 🟠🔵 🟩 (Kot Diji)
c. 33rd c. — Long‑range obsidian & metal exchanges expand in Anatolia/Aegean. 🟠 🔷⬛ (Anatolia—Early Bronze)
c. 3200–3000 — Early Cycladic I seafaring & marble figurines; Aegean connectivity. 🟢🟠 🔷 (Cycladic art)
c. 3200 — Hieroglyphic & cuneiform systems stabilize; written law/accounting becomes possible. 🟠 🔶
c. 32nd c. — Increasing palatial storage & rationing in southern Mesopotamia. 🟠🔵 🔶 (Mesopotamia—emergence)
c. 3200–3100 — Proto‑states along the Nile coalesce before political unification. 🔵 🔶 (Predynastic Egypt)
c. 3100 — Narmer unifies Egypt; First Dynasty begins; Memphis emerges as capital. 🔵 🔶 (Narmer)
c. 31st c. — Standardized scribal practice spreads across southern Mesopotamia. 🟠 🔶 (Cuneiform)
c. 31st c. — Early Harappan towns grow (e.g., Kot Diji fortifications). 🔵🟠 🟩 (Kot Diji)
c. 31st c. — Maritime links tighten among Cyclades, Crete, and mainland Greece. 🟠 🔷 (Aegean Bronze Age)
c. 3000–2900 — Early Dynastic Egypt I–II; royal iconography & administration expand. 🔵🟢 🔶 (Early Dynastic Egypt)
c. 3000 — Stonehenge Phase 1 (earthwork ditch & bank) begun. 🟢 🔷 (Stonehenge)
c. 3000–2900 — Sumerian city‑states (Uruk, Ur, Lagash) intensify rivalry. 🔵🔴 🔶 (Early Dynastic Mesopotamia)
c. 3000 — Liangzhu ritual‑jade canon achieves mature forms. 🟢 🟥 (Liangzhu culture)
c. 2900–2350 — Early Dynastic Mesopotamia (ED I–III); city‑state warfare & law traditions. 🔵🔴 🟠 🔶 (Mesopotamia—ED)
c. 29th c. — Egyptian 2nd Dynasty; administrative centralization. 🔵 🔶 (Early Dynastic Egypt)
c. 29th–28th c. — Cycladic seafaring & figurine workshops proliferate. 🟢🟠 🔷 (Cycladic art)
c. 29th–27th c. — Early Harappan settlement spread across Indus‑Sarasvati. 🔵 🟩 (Indus civilization—early phases)
c. 28th–27th c. — Fortified Sumerian cities; intensified inter‑city conflict. 🔴🔵 🔶 (ED Mesopotamia)
c. 28th c. — Early Bronze metallurgy spreads across Anatolia/Aegean. 🟠 🔷⬛ (Anatolia—Early Bronze)
c. 28th c. — Aegean pre‑palatial Crete grows (EM I–II horizons). 🔵🟠 🔷 (Minoan civilization)
c. 28th–27th c. — Indus crafts & weights standardize toward urban integration. 🟠 🔵 🟩 (Indus civilization)
c. 2670s — Djoser & Imhotep plan the Step Pyramid; architectural stone building begins. 🟢🔵 🔶 (Djoser)
c. 27th c. — Lagash–Umma border struggles typify ED city rivalries. 🔴 🔶 (Lagash)
c. 27th–26th c. — Aegean seafaring and elite exchange intensify. 🟠 🔷 (Aegean civilization)
c. 27th–26th c. — Early Harappan → Mature transition accelerates. 🟠🔵 🟩 (Indus civilization)
c. 2667–2648 — Step Pyramid at Saqqara completed; first great stone monument. 🟢🔵 🔶 (Step Pyramid)
c. 2600–2400 — Royal Cemetery of Ur; elite tombs & musical instruments. 🟢 🔶 (Royal Cemetery of Ur)
c. 2600–1900 — Mature Indus urbanism (grid plans, sanitation, seals). 🟠🔵 🟩 (Indus civilization)
c. 2600–1800 — Caral‑Supe (Norte Chico) monumental centers in Peru. 🔵🟢 🟦 (Caral‑Supe—UNESCO)
c. 2575–2465 — Giza pyramid complex (Khufu/Khafre/Menkaure) apex of royal monumentality. 🟢🔵 🔶 (Old Kingdom)
c. 25th–24th c. — Indus–Mesopotamia Gulf trade via Dilmun/Magan; standardized weights. 🟠 🔶🟩⬛ (Indus trade)
c. 25th–24th c. — Ebla archives show palace bureaucracy & diplomacy. 🟠🔵 🔶 (Ebla)
c. 25th–24th c. — Egyptian solar temples & Pyramid Texts codify theology. 🟣🟢 🔶 (Old Kingdom religion)
c. 24th–23rd c. — Early Dynastic Mesopotamian city‑states consolidate; palace‑temple economies. 🔵🟠 🔶 (Mesopotamia—ED)
c. 24th–23rd c. — Ubaid–Uruk legacies persist in southern Iraq canal landscapes. 🟠🟡 🔶 (Southern Mesopotamia irrigation)
c. 24th–23rd c. — Aegean Early Minoan/Mycenaean elites expand exchange. 🟠🔵 🔷 (Minoan civilization)
c. 24th–23rd c. — Liangzhu wanes; legacy in jade/ritual persists. 🟢 🟥 (Liangzhu culture)
2334–2279 — Sargon of Akkad forges a multiethnic empire; Akkadian lingua franca. 🔵 🟠 🔶 (Sargon)
c. 23rd c. — Karum‑style Anatolian trade nodes emerge. 🟠 🔷⬛ (Anatolia—trade)
c. 23rd c. — Erligang/Erlitou palatial bronze cultures expand in China’s heartland. 🔵🟠 🟥 (Chinese bronzes)
Late 24th–23rd c. — Royal ideology spreads Levant‑Mesopotamia (Ebla, Mari). 🟢🔵 🔶 (Ebla)
c. 2193–2154 — Akkadian collapse (Gutians; arid stress debated). 🔴🟡 🔶 (Akkad—decline)
c. 2181 — Egypt’s First Intermediate Period begins; regionalization & local cults. 🔵 🔶 (Egypt—FIP)
c. 2240–2200 — Ebla destroyed; Levantine power reshuffles. 🔴 🔶 (Ebla)
c. 22nd c. — Indus interregional exchange sustained despite Near Eastern shocks. 🟠 🟩 (Indus)
2112–2004 — Ur III centralizes labor/taxation; ziggurats & law. 🔵🟠 🟢 🔶 (Ur III)
c. 2100 — Code of Ur‑Nammu (earliest extant law). 🟠 🔶 (Code of Ur‑Nammu)
c. 2055–1985 — Egypt reunified (Middle Kingdom foundations). 🔵 🔶 (Middle Kingdom)
c. 21st c. — Karum Kültepe/Kaneš merchant archives begin. 🟠 🔷⬛ (Kültepe)
c. 2000–1700 — Minoan Old Palaces (Knossos, Phaistos) & redistribution economies. 🔵🟠 🟢 🔷 (Minoan civilization)
c. 20th–19th c. — Old Assyrian trade colonies in Anatolia. 🟠 🔷⬛ (Karum network)
c. 2000–1800 — Isin–Larsa rivalry in southern Mesopotamia. 🔵🔴 🔶 (Babylonia)
c. 2000 — Early Zhou/Erlitou/Erligang proto‑state trajectories in North China. 🔵 🟥 (Chinese Bronze Age)
c. 19th–18th c. — Kārum Kaneš tablet troves record private trade/credit. 🟠 🔷⬛ (Kültepe)
c. 1934–1924 — Code of Lipit‑Ishtar (Isin). 🟠 🔶 (Lipit‑Ishtar)
c. 19th–18th c. — Old Babylonian dynasties rise (Amorites). 🔵 🔶 (Old Babylonian)
c. 1900–1700 — Aegean shaft‑grave elites consolidate on Greek mainland. 🔵🟢 🔷 (Shaft graves)
1792–1750 — Hammurabi expands Babylon; famous law stele. 🔵🟠 🔶 (Hammurabi)
c. 18th c. — Shamshi‑Adad I builds Upper Mesopotamian kingdom. 🔵 🔶 (Mesopotamia—history)
c. 18th–17th c. — Old Hittite formation in central Anatolia (Hattusa). 🔵 🔷 (Old Hittite)
c. 18th c. — Tin/copper long‑distance networks fuel the Bronze Age. 🟠 🔷⬛ (Anatolia—trade)
c. 17th c. — Kassite groups rise in highlands; later dominate Babylonia. 🔵 🔶 (Babylonia—Kassites)
c. 1630–1530 — Hyksos rule northern Egypt from Avaris. 🔵 🔶 (Hyksos)
c. 1700–1450 — Mycenaean shaft‑grave era on Greek mainland. 🔵🟢 🔷 (Shaft graves)
c. 1650–1500 — Old Hittite Kingdom consolidates. 🔵 🔷 (Old Hittite)
c. 1600–1046 — Shang dynasty; oracle bones & bronze industries. 🔵🟠 🟢 🟥 (Shang)
c. 1595 — Mursili I sacks Babylon; Kassite dynasty follows. 🔴 🔶 (Mursili I)
c. 1550 — Ahmose I expels Hyksos; New Kingdom begins. 🔵 🔶 (Ahmose I)
c. 16th c. — Mycenaean warrior‑elite culture (Grave Circle A). 🔵🟢 🔷 (Shaft graves)
c. 1479–1425 — Thutmose III expands Egypt; Levantine holdings. 🔵🔴 🔶 (Thutmose III)
c. 1500–1200 — Mitanni influence peaks in N. Mesopotamia/Syria. 🔵 🟠 🔶 (Mitanni)
c. 15th c. — Shang Anyang divination/writing matures. 🟠 🟥 (Oracle bones)
c. 1500–1200 — Olmec precursors consolidate on Gulf Coast. 🔵🟢 🟦 (Olmec)
c. 14th c. — Mycenaean palaces & Linear B administrative scripts. 🟠🔵 🟢 🔷 (Linear B)
c. 14th–13th c. — Kassite Babylon stabilizes S. Mesopotamia. 🔵 🔶 (Babylonia—Kassites)
c. 14th–13th c. — Hittite Empire apex in Anatolia. 🔵 🔷 (Hittite Empire)
c. 14th–12th c. — Olmec early centers take shape (San Lorenzo). 🔵🟢 🟦 (Olmec)
c. 1274 — Battle of Kadesh; earliest known peace treaty (Hittite–Egyptian). 🔴🔵 🔶🔷 (Kadesh)
c. 13th c. — Ugarit alphabetic innovation & Levantine trade hub. 🟠 🟢 🔶 (Ugarit)
c. 13th c. — Late Shang bronze/ritual apogee. 🟢🟠 🟥 (Shang bronzes)
c. 13th c. — Mycenaean maritime reach across the Aegean. 🔵🟠 🔷 (Mycenaean civilization)
c. 1200–1150 — Bronze Age Collapse across E. Mediterranean. 🔴 🟡 🔷🔶 (Bronze Age collapse)
c. 12th c. — Sea Peoples raids; Egypt repels at Medinet Habu. 🔴 🔶 (Sea Peoples)
c. 12th c. — Early Olmec (San Lorenzo) flourish. 🔵🟢 🟦 (Olmec)
c. 12th–11th c. — Zhou proto‑states rise in N. China. 🔵 🟥 (Zhou)
c. 1046 — Zhou overthrow Shang; Mandate of Heaven. 🔵🟣 🟥 (Zhou)
c. 11th c. — Phoenician city‑states grow; alphabet spreads. 🟠🔵 🔶🔷 (Phoenicia)
c. 11th–9th c. — Neo‑Assyrian revival in Upper Mesopotamia. 🔵🔴 🔶 (Assyria)
c. 11th–10th c. — Post‑Mycenaean Greece adopts iron; village networks. 🟠 🔷 (Greek Dark Age)
c. 1000–900 — United Monarchy traditions (Saul–David–Solomon). 🔵🟣 🔶 (Ancient Israel)
c. 10th c. — Western Zhou capital at Haojing; feudal order. 🔵 🟥 (Zhou)
c. 10th–8th c. — Kush/Napata rises as Egypt wanes. 🔵 🔶🟫 (Kingdom of Kush)
c. 10th–9th c. — La Venta (Olmec) ceremonial core grows. 🔵🟢 🟦 (Olmec)
c. 9th c. — Neo‑Assyrian expansion (Kalhu/Nimrud). 🔵🔴 🔶 (Assyria)
c. 9th–8th c. — Greek polis formation; Homeric epics. 🟣🟢 🔷 (Polis)
c. 9th c. — Zhou regionalization seeds Warring States. 🔵 🟥 (Zhou)
c. 9th–8th c. — Phoenician colonization (e.g., Gadir/Cádiz). 🟠 🔶🔷 (Phoenicians)
753 — Traditional founding of Rome. 🔵 🔷 (Ancient Rome)
c. 8th–6th c. — Greek colonization of Med/Black Sea. 🟠🔵 🔷 (Greek colonization)
c. 747–656 — Kushite 25th Dynasty rules Egypt. 🔵 🔶🟫 (25th Dynasty)
771 — Zhou Spring & Autumn era begins. 🔴🔵 🟥 (Spring and Autumn period)
c. 8th–7th c. — Assyrian apex (Sargon II, Sennacherib). 🔵🔴 🔶 (Assyria)
c. 7th c. — Hoplite tactics & archaic Greek art arise. 🔴🟢 🔷 (Hoplite)
c. 7th c. — Etruscan urban culture expands in Italy. 🔵🟢 🔷 (Etruscan civilization)
trad. dates — Zoroaster reforms Iranian religion. 🟣 🔶⬛ (Zoroastrianism)
612–539 — Neo‑Babylonian Empire; destruction of Assyria; Jerusalem exile (586). 🔵🔴 🟣 🔶 (Neo‑Babylonia)
c. 7th–6th c. — Greek colonies (Cyrene, Massalia) extend trade web. 🟠 🔷 (Greek colonization)
c. 7th–6th c. — Upanishadic era & Mahajanapadas urbanization. 🟣🟠 🔵 🟩 (Upanishads)
c. 7th–5th c. — Eastern Zhou competitive statecraft; Sunzi traditions. 🟣🔵 🟠 🟥 (Eastern Zhou)
c. 550–330 — Achaemenid Persia (Cyrus–Darius); Royal Road. 🔵🟠 🔶⬛🔷🟩 (Achaemenid Empire)
c. 6th c. — Buddhism & Jainism arise in Gangetic plain. 🟣 🟩 (Buddhism)
499–449 — Greco‑Persian Wars; Classical turn. 🔴🔵 🔷⬛ (Greco‑Persian Wars)
c. 6th–5th c. — Confucius & Laozi; Hundred Schools. 🟣 🟥 (Hundred Schools)
431–404 — Peloponnesian War; Athens→Sparta→Thebes hegemony shifts. 🔴🔵 🔷 (Peloponnesian War)
c. 4th c. — Magadha consolidation (Nanda precursors to Maurya). 🔵 🟩 (Magadha)
c. 5th–4th c. — Satrapal rebellions & Achaemenid–Greek interactions. 🔴🔵 🔷⬛ (Achaemenid Empire)
c. 5th–3rd c. — Warring States innovation (iron tools, cavalry). 🟠🔴 🟥 (Warring States)
336–323 — Alexander the Great dismantles Achaemenids; Hellenistic kingdoms arise. 🔴🔵 🔷⬛🔶 (Alexander)
c. 322–185 — Mauryan Empire (Chandragupta–Ashoka). 🔵🟣 🟩 (Maurya)
c. 4th–3rd c. — Qin legalist reforms & centralization loom. 🔵 🟥 (Qin)
c. 4th–3rd c. — Olmec decline; early Zapotec/Izapa growth. 🔵🟢 🟦 (Teotihuacan/Preclassic)
221–206 — Qin Empire; standardization & early Great Wall. 🟠🔵 🟥 (Qin)
206 BCE–220 CE — Han dynasty consolidates; Silk Road embryos via Hexi Corridor. 🔵🟠 🟥⬛ (Han)
268–232 — Ashoka spreads Buddhism; rock‑edict moral polity. 🟣🔵 🟩 (Ashoka)
218–201 — Second Punic War (Hannibal). 🔴 🔷🔶 (Second Punic War)
2nd–1st c. — Han vs. Xiongnu; Zhang Qian opens CA routes. 🔴🟠 🔵 ⬛🟥 (Zhang Qian)
2nd–1st c. — Late Hellenistic science & Roman entanglements in East. 🟢🔵 🔷🔶 (Hellenistic science)
c. 1st c. BCE — Teotihuacan ascent; Maya Preclassic cities grow. 🔵🟠 🟦 (Teotihuacan)
2nd–1st c. — Indo‑Greek/Śaka polities; Gandhara syncretism. 🔵🟢 🟠 🟩⬛ (Greco‑Bactria/Indo‑Greek)
27 BCE–14 CE — Augustus stabilizes Roman Empire; Pax Romana begins. 🔵 🔷 (Augustus)
1st c. — Parthian–Roman frontier struggles in Mesopotamia. 🔴🔵 🔶⬛ (Parthian Empire)
1st c. — Han population boom & early paper invention. 🟠 🔵 🟥 (Paper—China)
1st c. — Kushan bridge CA–SA; Buddhism into Tarim. 🔵🟣 ⬛🟩 (Kushan Empire)
98–180 — High Empire Rome (Trajan–Hadrian–Marcus Aurelius). 🔵🔴 🔷 (Roman Empire)
1st–2nd c. — Han peak (Emperor Zhang, etc.), followed by factional strains. 🔵 🔴 🟥 (Han dynasty)
1st–2nd c. — Satavahanas & Indo‑Roman trade via Muziris. 🟠🔵 🟩🔷 (Muziris)
2nd c. — Teotihuacan metropolis expansion (orthogonal grid). 🟠🟢 🟦 (Teotihuacan)
235–284 — Crisis of the Roman Empire; fragmentation & inflation. 🔴🟠 🔷 (Crisis of the Third Century)
220–280 — Three Kingdoms (China) after Han: Cao Wei/Shu/Wu. 🔴🔵 🟥 (Three Kingdoms)
224–651 — Sasanian Empire replaces Parthia; Zoroastrian revival. 🔵🟣 🔶⬛ (Sasanian Empire)
3rd c. — Maya Classic florescence accelerates. 🔵🟢 🟦 (Maya civilization)
313–337 — Constantine & Nicaea (325); Christianity patronized. 🟣🔵 🔷 (Council of Nicaea)
c. 320–550 — Gupta rise; Sanskrit culture & decimal roots. 🔵🟢 🟩 (Gupta dynasty)
4th c. — Steppe pressures on China; Buddhism expands. 🔴🟣 🟥⬛ (Buddhism in China)
mid‑4th c. — Axum adopts Christianity (Ezana). 🟣🔵 🟫 (Aksum)
476 — Fall of Western Roman Empire; Germanic successor states. 🔴🔵 🔷 (Fall of Rome)
5th c. — Gupta zenith → fragmentation; Ajanta murals. 🟢🔵 🟩 (Ajanta Caves)
5th c. — Northern Wei sinicization & cave temples (Yungang). 🔵🟢 🟥 (Yungang Grottoes)
5th c. — Maya monumental programs & trade networks. 🟢🟠 🔵 🟦 (Maya civilization)
527–565 — Justinianic codification (Corpus Juris Civilis); Hagia Sophia. 🟠🟢🔵 🔷 (Code of Justinian)
589 — Sui reunify China. 🔵 🟥 (Sui dynasty)
mid‑6th c. — Gupta decline amid Huna pressures. 🔴🔵 🟩 (Gupta dynasty)
c. 550 — Teotihuacan declines, reshaping Mesoamerica. 🔴 🔵 🟦 (Teotihuacan)
622 — Hijra inaugurates Islamic era. 🟣 🔶 (Hijrah)
630s–660s — Rashidun/Umayyad conquests across NENA. 🔴🔵 🔶⬛ (Islamic world)
618–907 — Tang dynasty founded; cosmopolitan apex. 🔵🟠 🟥 (Tang)
7th c. — Classic Maya florescence (Palenque et al.). 🔵🟢 🟦 (Maya civilization)
711–718 — Umayyads enter Iberia; al‑Andalus forms. 🔴🔵 🔶🔷 (Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād)
732 — Battle of Tours checks Umayyad push into Gaul. 🔴 🔷 (Charles Martel)
750–762 — ʿAbbasid Revolution; Baghdad founded. 🔵🟠 🔶 (Abbasids)
794 — Heian period begins in Japan. 🔵🟢 🟥 (Heian period)
800 — Charlemagne crowned; Carolingian imperial model. 🔵 🔷 (Charlemagne)
c. 813–833 — House of Wisdom & translation movement peak in Baghdad. 🟠 🔶 (Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq)
755–763 aftermath — An Lushan’s impact weakens Tang hegemony. 🔴 🔵 🟥 (An Lushan)
9th c. — Late Classic Maya stress & contractions. 🔴 🔵 🟦 (Maya collapse)
c. 960–1279 foundations — Song economic/urban surge. 🟠🔵 🟥 (Song dynasty)
10th–11th c. — Heian court zenith; kana literature. 🟢🟣 🔵 🟥 (Japanese literature—Heian)
909–1171 — Fatimid state builds in N. Africa/Egypt. 🔵 🔶 (Fatimid Caliphate)
c. 900–1200 — Angkor consolidates in mainland SE Asia. 🔵🟢 🟪 (Angkor)
11th c. — Song innovations (movable type, early gunpowder, paper money). 🟠 🟥 (Song technology)
1054 — Great Schism splits Latin/Greek churches. 🟣 🔷 (East–West Schism)
1066 — Norman Conquest reshapes England. 🔴🔵 🔷 (Norman Conquest)
1095 — First Crusade proclaimed. 🔴🔵 🔷🔶 (Crusades)
c. 1100–1200 — Chola thalassocracy projects into the Indian Ocean. 🔵🟠 🔵 🟩🟪 (Chola dynasty)
12th c. — Toledo translators channel Arabic/Greek science to Latin Europe. 🟠 🟣 🔷🔶 (Toledo School)
1185 — Kamakura shogunate begins (warrior rule). 🔵🔴 🟥 (Kamakura period)
late 12th c. — Angkor building peaks (Angkor Wat). 🟢 🔵 🟪 (Angkor)
1206 — Genghis Khan unifies Mongol tribes. 🔵🔴 ⬛ (Genghis Khan)
1206–1526 — Delhi Sultanate in North India. 🔵 🔴 🟩 (Delhi Sultanate)
1258 — Sack of Baghdad ends Abbasid primacy in Iraq. 🔴 🔶 (Abbasids)
13th c. — Swahili Coast maritime trade booms (Kilwa, Mombasa). 🟠 🔵 🟫 (Kilwa Kisiwani)
c. 1300–1400 — Mali Empire apex (Mansa Musa); trans‑Saharan gold/salt. 🔵🟠 🟫⬛ (Mali)
1325–1354 — Ibn Battuta travels link Afro‑Eurasia. 🟠 🔶🟫⬛🟪 (Ibn Battuta)
1337–1453 — Hundred Years’ War begins. 🔴 🔷 (Hundred Years’ War)
1347–1351 — Black Death reshapes demography/economies. 🟡 🟠 🔷🟩🟥 (Black Death)
1405–1433 — Zheng He’s voyages; Indian Ocean system at scale. 🟠 🔵 🟥🟪 (Zheng He)
1453 — Fall of Constantinople; Ottoman ascendancy; Greek scholars to Italy. 🔴🔵 🟠 🔷🔶 (Fall of Constantinople)
c. 1428–1521 — Aztec Triple Alliance consolidates in Central Mexico. 🔵🔴 🟦 (Aztec)
1430s–1500 — Songhai rises along the Niger. 🔵🟠 🟫⬛ (Songhai)
1519–1521 — Spanish–Aztec War ends Tenochtitlán’s rule. 🔴 🔵 🟦🔷 (Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire)
1532–1572 — Spanish–Inca conflicts dismantle Tawantinsuyu. 🔴 🔵 🟦🔷 (Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire)
1526 — Mughal Empire founded (Babur) in North India. 🔵 🟩 (Mughal Empire)
1571 — Manila galleons link Americas–Asia via Spain/Philippines; first durable global trade circuit. 🟠 🔷🟦🟪🟥 (Manila galleon)
8th–9th c. CE — House of Wisdom (Baghdad) preserves/extends Greek learning (Arabic/Syriac translations). 🟠 🟣 🔶 (Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq)
12th–13th c. CE — Toledo School of Translators transmits Arabic/Greek science to Latin Europe. 🟠 🟣 🔷🔶 (Toledo School)
1345 — Petrarch rediscovers Cicero’s letters (humanist spark). 🟣 🔷 (Petrarch)
1453 — Constantinople’s fall sends Greek scholars & texts westward; Renaissance Platonism. 🟠 🟣 🔷 (Fall of Constantinople)
1738 & 1748 — Excavations at Herculaneum (1738) & Pompeii (1748) pioneer classical archaeology. 🟢 🔷 (Herculaneum; Pompeii)
1799 — Rosetta Stone discovered; key to Egyptian scripts. 🟠 🔶 (Rosetta Stone—BM)
1822 — Champollion deciphers hieroglyphs. 🟠 🔶 (Champollion)
1846–1857 — Behistun Inscription enables cuneiform decipherment. 🟠 🔶 (Behistun)
1870s — Schliemann at Troy & Mycenae ignites Aegean prehistory. 🟢 🔷 (Schliemann)
1900 — Arthur Evans at Knossos; defines Minoan civilization. 🟢 🔷 (Arthur Evans)
1911 — Machu Picchu publicized internationally (Bingham). 🟢 🟦 (Machu Picchu)
1920s — Major digs at Harappa/Mohenjo‑daro reveal Indus civilization. 🟠 🟩 (Harappa)
1947 — Dead Sea Scrolls discovered; reshape Second Temple textual history. 🟠 🟣 🔷🔶 (Dead Sea Scrolls)
1952 — Michael Ventris deciphers Linear B; Mycenaean Greek confirmed. 🟠 🔷 (Ventris)
1974 — Terracotta Army (Qin mausoleum) discovered. 🟢 🟥 (Terracotta Army)
Entries are concise for scanning; click links for depth.
Icons are uniform: Themes first, then Regions.
Long date ranges are anchored at their onset within the proper century to keep full chronological order.
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History (The Met) — region-by-region essays + chronologies keyed to objects. https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/timeline-of-art-history The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Khan Academy – World & Ancient History — short, classroom-ready modules (ANE, Persia, Greece, Rome, India, China). https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history Khan Academy+1
Britannica – Ancient World Portal — curated entries and topic paths. https://www.britannica.com/browse/Ancient-World Encyclopedia Britannica
World History Encyclopedia — accessible essays, maps, and timelines (open-access, editorial oversight). https://www.worldhistory.org/ World History Encyclopedia
Cambridge Ancient History (multi-volume) — definitive scholarly reference (publisher series page). https://www.cambridge.org/core/series/cambridge-ancient-history/010C506409EE858277F898C129759025 Cambridge University Press & Assessment
Oxford Reference / ORE Classics & Ancient History — peer-reviewed overviews (institutional access). https://oxfordre.com/classics/ and https://oxfordre.com/ (portal) Oxford Research Encyclopedia+1
Primary sources (open access)
Internet Ancient History Sourcebook (Fordham) — wide gateway to translated texts. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/ancient/asbook.asp Internet History Sourcebooks
Perseus Digital Library (Tufts) — Greek/Latin texts with tools and translations. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ (about) Wikipedia
ETCSL (Oxford) – Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature — ~400 Sumerian literary works with translations. https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/ etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk
Chinese Text Project — pre-Qin to Han classics (full text + tools). https://ctext.org/ ctext.org
Epigraphy, tablets, & corpora
CDLI – Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative — tablets, images, metadata. https://cdli.earth/ CDLI
ORACC – Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus — searchable, lemmatized cuneiform projects. https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/ oracc.museum.upenn.edu
Maps, gazetteers, and travel models
Pleiades: Gazetteer of the Ancient World — authoritative ancient places dataset. https://pleiades.stoa.org/ pleiades.stoa.org
Ancient World Mapping Center (UNC) — maps, GIS data, and interactive tools. https://awmc.unc.edu/ (see “Maps” and “GIS Data”) awmc.unc.edu+2awmc.unc.edu+2
ORBIS (Stanford) — model of Roman-world travel time & cost (ca. 200 CE). https://orbis.stanford.edu/ orbis.stanford.edu
DARE – Digital Atlas of the Roman Empire — browsable Roman places & layers. https://imperium.ahlfeldt.se/ imperium.ahlfeldt.se
Regional portals & specialist resources
Digital Giza (Harvard Giza Project) — documents, photos, 3D models for the Giza plateau. https://giza.fas.harvard.edu/ giza.fas.harvard.edu
Theban Mapping Project — Valley of the Kings maps, tomb data, bibliography. https://thebanmappingproject.com/ (about: ARCE/TMP background) Wikipedia+1
Encyclopaedia Iranica (Achaemenid articles) — scholarly entries on Persia (e.g., dynasty, satrapies, religion). https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty/ (see related) Encyclopaedia Iranica+2Encyclopaedia Iranica+2
Mesoweb — Maya/Mesoamerican texts, monographs, and resources (many OA). https://www.mesoweb.com/ mesoweb.com
Livius.org — well-sourced articles across ancient regions and themes. https://www.livius.org/ Livius
Museum collections (object-based study)
British Museum – Collection Online — millions of object records across world cultures. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection British Museum
Louvre – Collections — 500k+ entries; filter by Egyptian, Near Eastern, Greco-Roman antiquities. https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ Louvre Collections
The Met – Essays & Objects — pair Heilbrunn essays with collection entries. https://www.metmuseum.org/essays The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Smithsonian – Human Origins — for deep background on early humans (pre-civilization). https://humanorigins.si.edu/ Human Origins
Tips for using these with your timeline
For each timeline node, link to one overview (Met / Khan / Britannica / World History) + one primary/artefact page (Perseus/CDLI/ETCSL/BM/Louvre).
Use Pleiades to standardize ancient place names; link site names (e.g., Uruk, Knossos, Persepolis) to their Pleiades entries. pleiades.stoa.org
When covering Achaemenid Persia, pair a short overview with Iranica articles for depth (dynasty/satrapies/religion). Encyclopaedia Iranica+2Encyclopaedia Iranica+2
For Egyptian entries, link to Digital Giza or Theban Mapping Project pages for the specific monument/tomb. giza.fas.harvard.edu+1
For the Roman world, add an ORBIS “route” link (e.g., Rome→Antioch in winter) to make logistics tangible. orbis.stanford.edu