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Vocabulary comprises developing high-frequency words that learners can use across the curriculum in order to develop a receptive and an expressive vocabulary to be able to communicate effectively both orally and in writing (Mora-Flores, 2011).
Teaching Vocabulary Strategies
The strategies described below are proposed by Peregoy and Boyle (2013) as essential methods for English learners to expanding their vocabulary.
Some of the key elements of vocabulary instruction suggested by Peregoy and Boyle (2013) involve the following cycle of activities:
- Preassessing and reassessing (informal and formal ongoing assessment)
- Wide reading of fiction and nonfiction are used (teacher selected and student selected)
- Words are taught explicitly (high-frequency words and other selected words)
- Strategies for learning words are taught (using prefixes, suffixes, context, dictionaries)
A Note on High Frequency Words
"English learners need to develop a vocabulary that includes general high frequency words along with specific academic content words that may occur less frequently but are crucial for learning science, math, history, literature, among other subjects" (Peregoy and Boyle, 2013, p. 227). Check this list of high-frequency words.
Logic of English High Frequency Word List.pdfA Note on Word Tiers
Tier 1 words comprise the most basic words that usually appear in oral conversations. Thus, learners are exposed to them at high frequency. Some of these words are: warm, dog, tired, run, walk, party, swim, look, and so on.
Tier 2 words contain terms that are of high function among advanced language users and are found across a variety of domains such as written text. However, they are barely found in conversation, meaning that learners are less likely to learn those words independently, in comparison to tier 1 words. Some of these terms are: contradict, circumstances, precede, auspicious, fervent, and retrospect.
Tier 3 words have a low frequency use and they are limited to specific topics and domains. These words are perhaps best learned when students learn content-area vocabulary in science or social studies. Some examples are pantheon and epidermis (Beck, McKeown & Kucan, 2013).
A Note on Collocations
Researchers have demonstrated that even when English learners have an expanded bank of words to use for communication, their written productions seem inaccurate due to the lack of frequently and appropriate employment of collocations (Hinkel, 2015). Collocations are combinations of two or more words that are found together in text and discourse. They include words in combinations with any types of other words. For example, nouns, verbs, prepositions, and prepositional phrases. Collocations consist of two elements which are: 1) the main word and 2) the accompanying word(s). They can be lexical (for instance change jobs, change direction, change course, or change gears) or grammatical. To help learners to be aware of collocations, the teacher can highlight the main or pivot words and the terms that accompany them. A successful method to teach learners to notice collocations is bring their attention to sets of words and phrases that occur frequently when they read (Hinkel, 2015).
A Note on Context Clues*
Sometimes learners can figure out what the meaning of a new word is from its context (the words around it). The following sentences are examples that show the meanings of the words in dark print from the underlined clues.
- She needed three pencils for the test, but she brought five, so two were superfluous. (more than what is needed).
- What the monster did in the horror movie was so atrocious that I almost got sick watching it. (extremely evil or cruel).
- The basketball players were so boisterous after their victory, I had to ask them to quiet down so I could study. (loud and enthusiastic).
The clown show was uproarious and my little sister couldn’t stop laughing. (extremely funny).
*Adapted from Terban (2007), The Ultimate Spelling and Vocabulary Reference.
Beginning-Level Vocabulary Learners
These strategies are considered especially beneficial for beginning-level English learners due to the opportunities they have to learn new words in multiple ways. English learners will benefit from instruction aimed to using words the teacher selects from the high-frequency words list, and words associated with daily routines.
This is an approach to language teaching that combines movement with words to convey meaning (Asher, 2000, as cited in Peregoy & Boyle, 2013). Words such as “stand up,” “sit down,” and “good-bye” are paired by the teacher with body gestures and dramatization. Students are able to learn new words when they watch, imitate, and respond to the teacher by participating actively in meaningful communicative and grammatical contexts. The game called “Simon Says” is a variation of TPR which involves the teacher’s commands and gestures. TPR and “Simon Says” are beneficial for beginning English learners because of three main reasons. First, actions demonstrate word meaning; also, learners show comprehension when responding; and finally, oral production is not required. Additionally, TPR is a fun, effective, low-pressure way to learn or reinforce new words.
Even though the read-alouds activity is misinterpreted as an activity to be used with students in K-3 grade, this strategy is beneficial for older students as well, even for middle and high schoolers. English learners can benefit from listening to different genres such as stories, poems, essays, articles, and more. Learners get familiar with sounds and the correct organization and flow of written English. For beginners, it is appropriate to implement short selections on familiar topics like short stories and poems. It is important to build student’s prior knowledge by discussing the title, the front cover of the book, or some pictures from the story before reading in order to promote vocabulary acquisition. Likewise, it is useful to use pictures and actions to support learners’ comprehension.
Word cards can be used with learners at any level. These tools are used to help English learners remember and strengthen the vocabulary they already know. In order for students to create word cards, they need to write the word and make a drawing or glue a picture on one side, and write a brief definition or the translation of the word in their native language on the other side. Three important considerations about the use of word cards are: 1) learners develop a personal collection equipped to their individual needs and interests, 2) teachers provide important content vocabulary for students to add in the word cards, and 3) students can review the words at any time (by themselves or with a peer) since they keep the cards with them. In order to strengthen and consolidate the vocabulary already learned, teachers can suggest sorting the words by grammatical or alphabetical categories.
This strategy allows students to learn and review words posted on the wall as they are introduced from a particular reading, a topic being taught, or a theme study. The way this method is developed is very similar to word cards because a picture or a short definition is posted next to the word to convey meaning, and it is used to go over the vocabulary learned in advance. As students evaluate and decide which words they already know in order to remove them from the wall. The teacher is able to add new terms in alphabetical order.
Idioms
When learners are exposed to idioms they get familiar with idiomatic expressions they may find when reading, during conversations, or during class instruction. Moreover, English learners realize that idioms’ meanings are not literal but figurative. Two strategies to teach idioms to ELs are: 1) by using pictures linked to the context where the idioms appear or take place in order to describe the setting and the relationship of the situation with the idiom, and 2) by having students work in small groups where they attempt to guess the meaning of the idioms and have the opportunity to look up the correct definition with a partner. A list of idioms alphabetically and by category is found in this link.
Mora-Flores (2011) discussed cognates as “words that have a similar spelling, meaning and pronunciation from one language to another” (p. 83). The majority of academic words students learn through content areas have Spanish-English cognates; however, if learners are not aware of their meanings in Spanish it will be difficult for them to have the L1 support for English language development (Mora-Flores, 2011). On the other hand, there are certain words like family (familia in Spanish, famiglia in Italian, and familie in German) that are familiar to English learners so the words will facilitate reading in English because those words are common, everyday concepts and terms that help students make meaning when they learn to read in English (Mora-Flores, 2011). Levine, Lukens, and Smallwood (2013) developed a series of activities aimed to teach vocabulary to ELs. In particular, they described how to teach cognates among other vocabulary activities (document attached below). A list of cognates (English/Spanish and English/German) is attached.
Cognates Mora Flores 2011.pdfIntermediate-Level Vocabulary Learners
The strategies described below are suggested as useful activities aimed to help intermediate English learners. At this level, ELs may know many of the high-frequency words and might be able to read authentic texts in English. It is recommendable to teach specific content-area terms as well as high-frequency words.
Word wheels can be useful to visually represent terms related in some way, such as synonyms. For instance, instead of using the word say, ELs learn new ways to express words using other terms such as exclaim, state, answer, or declare. After students know the central word in the wheel, it is important to discuss the different meanings of the words around the wheel. English learners will be able to use those words in their writing and speaking.
This strategy allows learners to reflect on which words they consider important in an assigned reading in order to make a study list. Also, the teacher collaborates with students by adding words he or she regards as important. Once the words are gathered, the teacher leads a detailed discussion on the words. Then, learners narrow the vocabulary list by eliminating terms students already know and choose words they consider interesting and important. English learners can benefit from this strategy because they become more autonomous as they select or discard words from the list. Similarly, learners can work in pairs to test each other on the words. Three great advantages of this strategy for ELs are: 1) learners’ active participation, 2) the development of a strong sense of word consciousness, and 3) autonomy of learners’ own vocabulary development.
Word wizard is aimed to help English learners be focused on new words as they become aware of the nuanced meanings of terms learned at school in different contexts outside the classroom. The main characteristic of this strategy is that ELs learn new words in class, and they must take note of the use of those words outside class in varied settings such as conversations, television, radio, magazines, or newspapers. When learners share their reports in class, students are encouraged to explain the different ways a specific word is used. Word wizard is considered a wonderful complement to the vocabulary self-collection strategy.
Vocabulary journals are an extension of word cards since learners are assigned or discover new words in class. They note the word, the definition, a meaningful sentence using the word, and a particular hint to remember the word such as a picture or a synonym. Also, learners can add new sentences when they come across the words again. In this way, the vocabulary journal becomes a personal dictionary useful to review words learned in class. This strategy stimulates and builds awareness for new words, their corresponding meanings, and promotes writing as learners reflect on their own learning.
Another strategy is defined by Herrel and Jordan (2004): “Vocabulary role play is a strategy used to encourage learners to make connections among their past experiences, the content they have studied, and new vocabulary” (p. 160). Once learners are introduced to new vocabulary they discuss the meaning of the words in context, and then, they are given an opportunity to use dramatization. ELs are challenged to write a script and perform a skit in which the words they are learning in specific contexts are used and demonstrated. Through this strategy, English learners are given the opportunity to see the vocabulary words used in context, and receive examples of meaningful demonstrations of how the words are used appropriately in different contexts as well.
Prefixes and Suffixes
Two of the main considerations regarding prefixes and suffixes are that 1) a small number of prefixes are found in a great number of words learners read, and 2) for ELs, the suffixes for regular verbs are important, such as the –ed and –ing endings. The following steps are suggested to teach prefixes and suffixes to English learners. First, it is important to explain what a prefix (or a suffix) is and how it contributes to a word’s meaning. Exemplification of words with prefixes is necessary. Second, provide examples of certain prefixes and show how a particular prefix affects word meaning with different words. Also, it is fundamental to explain that a word without a prefix still has a base word. Third, provide examples on how to guess the meaning of a word based on the prefix. Finally, guide learners through the process of using prefixes to figure out the meaning of words they find when they read. It is recommendable that students have a list of words with prefixes to find out the meaning. Providing reading samples that contain words with prefixes is a good idea.
GO TO Strategies.pdfLevine, Lukens, and Smallwood (2013) proposed a series of vocabulary strategies to teach ELs.
The Go To strategies: Scaffolding options for teachers of English language learners, K-12 was retrieved from www.cal.org/excell.
References
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2013). Bringing words to life. Robust vocabulary instruction. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Hinkel, E. (2015). Language focus: Teaching academic vocabulary, collocations, and pre-fabs. New York: Routledge. http://www.elihinkel.org/downloads.htm
Herrel, A., & Jordan, M. (2004). Fifty strategies for teaching English language learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Levine, L. N., Lukens, L, & Smallwood, B. A. (2013). The Go To strategies: Scaffolding options for teachers of English language learners, K-12. For Project EXCELL, a partnership between the University of Missouri-Kansas City and North Kansas City Schools, funded by the US Department of Education, PR Number T195N070316. Available online at www.cal.org/excell.
Mora-Flores, E. (2011). Connecting content and language for English language learners. Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education.
Peregoy, S. F. & Boyle, O. (2013). Reading, writing, and learning in ESL. A resource book for teaching k-12 English learners (6thEd.) Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Terban, M. (2007). The ultimate spelling & vocabulary reference. Easy-to-use guide. Lutherville, MD: Flying Frog Publishing, Inc.
Zuñiga, C., & Marino, E. (2006). Helping English language learners succeed. Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education.
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