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With roots in the Vedic anukirtana tradition, a kirtan is a call-and-response or antiphonal style song or chant, set to music, wherein multiple singers recite the names of a deity, describe a legend, express loving devotion to a deity, or discuss spiritual ideas.[5] It may include dancing or direct expression of bhavas (emotive states) by the singer.[5] Many kirtan performances are structured to engage the audience where they either repeat the chant,[6] or reply to the call of the singer.[7][8][9]

A kirtan performance includes an accompaniment of regionally popular musical instruments, especially Indian instruments like the Indian harmonium, the veena, sitar, or ektara (strings), the tabla (one-sided drums), the mrdanga or pakhawaj (two-sided drum), flute (woodwinds), and karatalas or talas (cymbals).[10] It is a major practice in Hinduism, Vaisnava devotionalism, Sikhism, the Sant traditions, and some forms of Buddhism, as well as other religious groups. Kirtan is sometimes accompanied by story-telling and acting. Texts typically cover religious, mythological or social subjects.[11]

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The term kirtan is found as anukirtan (or anukrti, anukarana, literally "re-telling") in the context of a Yajna (Vedic ritual offering), which meant a dual recitation of Vedic hymns in a dialogue style which was part of a ritual dramatic performance.[1][16]

Generally speaking, kirtan, sometimes referred to as sankirtana (literally, "collective performance"), is a king of collective chanting or musical conversation. As a genre of religious performance art, it developed in the Indian bhakti movements as a devotional religious practice (i.e. bhakti yoga).[19] However, it is a heterogeneous practice that varies regionally according to Christian Novetzke, and includes varying mixture of different musical instruments, dance, oration, theatre, audience participation and moral narration.[12]

Hindu kirtan is influenced by the practices and teachings of the various devotional Bhakti movements, who emphasized emotional loving relationship with a personal God, and also by the figures of the Sant tradition (like Kabir, Ravidas, and Namdev).[25][26] Beginning with the Tamil Alvars and Nayanars in around the 6th century, bhakti spread outside Tamilakam after the 12th century.[27][28] The foundations of the kirtan traditions are also found in works like the Bhagavad-gita which describes the bhakti marga (path of loving devotion to god) as a means to moksha. References to kirtan as a musical recitation are also found in the Bhagavata Purana, an important Vaishnava text.[29] The story of Prahlada in the Avatara Katha mentions kirtan as one of nine forms of bhakti.[30]

Bhakti poets and musicians like Jayadeva (the 12th century author of the Sanskrit Gita Govinda) were influential in the development of Indian devotional music genres like kirtan (which, though written in the vernacular, often imitated the style of Sanskrit bhakti poems).[31] Jayadeva was a great classical composer and wrote devotional music in the dhruvapada style (which is similar to dhrupad).[31]

There are various forms of Hindu kirtan, including northern traditions (often influenced by Hindustani music and Bengali music) and southern (Carnatic) traditions. Speaking of the Bengali kirtan tradition, Peggy Holroyde writes that "kirtans do not strictly adhere to the raga scale and they incorporate a chorus led by a leader. Much of the musical value is subordinated to the sentimental emotion expressed in the words of the song."[32] Regarding the southern (Carnatic) traditions of kirtan, they are generally "less ornate" than northern kirtan, making less use of "grace, trills and arabesques", but they are also much more structured musical forms.[32]

While kirtan is influenced by the practice of Indian classical music, they are much simpler than the complicated instrumental and vocal compositions of Indian classical ensembles. The focus of kirtan is on the lyrics or mantras, which deliver religious messages and stories. Guy Beck, writing on the northern kirtan tradition, states that "melody and rhythm are important, but devotional singers normally deplore musical virtuosity for its own sake, in contrast with the classical Hindustani and Karnatak traditions, which emphasize improvisation and technical mastery. A large variety of musical styles and forms exist, and no single formula has ever been mandated by custom to the exclusion of others. Musicians and religious leaders thus freely compose religious and devotional songs."[33] However, some kirtan styles are highly refined and technical, like dhrupad and Bengali padavali kirtan, which is considered by Bengalis to be the most cultured religious music.[34]

Regarding the arrangement, most kirtan performances are done by a group, with a choir led by a lead singer sitting on the floor, though sometimes, kirtan is done by standing group in temples, religious processions, or on the street.[33]

The 16th century CE saw an explosion of Vaishnava kirtan in the north. During this time, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu popularized Krishna based kirtan in Bengal, promoting and teaching the singing of Vaishnava songs which celebrate the love between Radha and Krishna, understood as being the love between the soul and God.[39][31] Chaitanya is also known as the father of padavali singing, a highly developed and complex musical tradition.[31]

Meanwhile, in the Braj region, Vallabha acharya launched a devotional movement which focused on kirtan songs about baby Krishna and his early childhood.[39] One ofshoot of this tradition is the Radha-centered Radha-vallabha Sampradaya, whose singing style known as Haveli Sangeet is based on Hindustani classical forms like "dhrupad" and "dhamar".[42] Another kirtan style shared by the Braj traditions like the Vallabha, Haridasi, and Nimbarka is samaj gayan, which is a kind of collective singing.[43]

Kirtan as a genre of religious music has been a major part of the Vaishnavism tradition, particularly starting with the Alvars of Sri Vaishnavism sub-tradition between the 7th to 10th century CE.[44] After the 13th-century, two subgenres of kirtan emerged in Vaishnavism, namely the Nama-kirtana wherein the different names or aspects of god (a Vishnu avatar) are extolled, and the Lila- kirtana wherein the deity's life and legends are narrated.[45]

In Andhra Pradesh, the compositions of the Tallapaka Annamacharya, a 14th-century Vaishnava mystic, represent the earliest known southern music called "sankirtana". He wrote in praise of Lord Venkateswara, the deity of Seven Hills in Tirumala.[46] During his long and prolific career, he reputedly composed and sang 32,000 Sankirtanas and 12 Shatakas (sets of hundred verses) in both Telugu and Sanskrit.

Naradiya Kirtan is divided into five main parts: naman (prayer), Purvaranga (the main spiritual lesson), chanting the names of God, katha or Akhyan (a story to support the lesson), final prayer.[49] The Naradiya Marathi Kirtan popular in Maharashtra is most often performed by a single performer, and contains the poetry of saints of Maharashtra such as Dnyaneshwar, Eknath, Namdev and Tukaram. Learned poets from 17th and 18th century such as Shridhar, Mahipati, and Moropant contributed to develop this form of kirtan.[50] A Naradiya kirtan performance can last for period of any length, from half an hour to 3 hours. Attendees may wear traditional clothing and the performers use instruments like the Indian harmonium, drums, and string instruments of various types mostly "Zanz", "chipali", "Tal" or "Chimata". Naradiya kirtan performers are usually very learned in literature, music, dance, acting and comedy.

Numerous Buddhist traditions use vocal music with instrumental accompaniment as part of their rituals and devotional practices.[60][61] Buddhist vocal music and chanting is often part of Buddhist rituals and festivals in which they may be seen as offerings to the Buddha.[25] Chants, songs and plays about the life of the Buddha by the Buddhists of Bengal are sometimes called Buddha-samkirtan or Buddha kirtan. Instruments like the Indian harmonium, flute, dotara, khol and kartal are used as accompaniment.[62][63]

The famed Bengali saint Paramahansa Yogananda was an early proponent of kirtan in the West. He chanted Guru Nanak Dev's Hey Hari Sundara ("Oh God Beautiful") with 3,000 people at Carnegie Hall in 1923.[70]

Kirtan became more common with the spread of Indian religious movements in the West in the 1960s. Movements which were influential in bringing Indian kirtan to West include the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), 3HO (Sikh followers of Yogi Bhajan), the Ramakrishna mission, the Divine Life Society, and Yogananda's Self-Realization Fellowship.[71][72]

Kirtan singing has also become popular among Westerners who consider themselves spiritual but who are not part of any specific religious institution or movement ("spiritual but not religious").[75] In this case, kirtan is seen as a social, expressive and holistic experience which helps one connect with the inner self. It is also considered egalitarian and manifests as an eclectic practice which draws on multiple cultures and is tolerant to most religions.[75] Western spiritual kirtan can be found in Western yoga centers, new age groups, spiritual communes, and neo-shamanic circles.[75]

For some Western practitioners, kirtan is seen as a way of socializing, relaxing, achieving meditative states, expressing oneself, attaining inner peace and positive emotions, getting to know one's inner self, and cultivating love for a deity and for others.[76]

In the United States case law, the term sankirtana has also been used to specifically refer to the promotional activities of ISKCON.[77] ISKCON had sought the right to perform sankirtana in California airports such as in Los Angeles. The court ruled that while ISKCON has a constitutional rights of protected speech, the Los Angeles airport also has a right to forbid any form of solicitation, out of "a legitimate interest in controlling pedestrian congestion and reducing the risk of fraud and duress attendant to repetitive, in-person solicitation of funds" by all groups including ISKCON.[78] e24fc04721