Research & Analysis

Quantitative research

Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic.

Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.

Quantitative research is at risk for research biases, including information bias, omitted variable bias, sampling bias, or selection bias.

Qualitative research

Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood.

Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories.

Qualitative research is also at risk for certain research biases, including the Hawthorne effect, observer bias, recall bias, and social desirability bias.

Data collection methods

Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected using various methods. It is important to use a data collection method that will help answer your research question(s).

Many data collection methods can be either qualitative or quantitative. For example, in surveys, observational studies or case studies, your data can be represented as numbers (e.g., using rating scales or counting frequencies) or as words (e.g., with open-ended questions or descriptions of what you observe).

However, some methods are more commonly used in one type or the other.

Quantitative data collection methods

• Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).

• Experiments: Situation in which different types of variables are controlled and manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

• Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be controlled.

Qualitative data collection methods

• Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.

• Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can be used for further research.

• Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time to closely observe culture and behavior.

• Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.

When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research

A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:

• Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or hypothesis)

• Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts, thoughts, experiences)

For most research topics, you can choose a qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods approach. Which type you choose depends on, among other things, whether you’re taking an inductive vs. deductive research approach; your research question(s); whether you’re doing experimental, correlational, or descriptive research; and practical considerations such as time, money, availability of data, and access to respondents.

Research question

How satisfied are students with their studies?

Quantitative research approach

You survey 300 students at your university and ask them questions such as: “on a scale from 1-5, how satisfied are your with your professors?”

You can perform statistical analysis on the data and draw conclusions such as: “on average students rated their professors 4.4”.

Qualitative research approach

You conduct in-depth interviews with 15 students and ask them open-ended questions such as: “How satisfied are you with your studies?”, “What is the most positive aspect of your study program?” and “What can be done to improve the study program?”

Based on the answers you get you can ask follow-up questions to clarify things. You transcribe all interviews using transcription software and try to find commonalities and patterns.

Mixed methods approach

You conduct interviews to find out how satisfied students are with their studies. Through open-ended questions you learn things you never thought about before and gain new insights. Later, you use a survey to test these insights on a larger scale.

It’s also possible to start with a survey to find out the overall trends, followed by interviews to better understand the reasons behind the trends.

How to analyse qualitative and quantitative data

Qualitative or quantitative data by itself can’t prove or demonstrate anything but has to be analysed to show its meaning in relation to the research questions. The method of analysis differs for each type of data.

Analysing quantitative data

Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical analysis is used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often reported in graphs and tables.

• Average scores (means)

• The number of times a particular answer was given

• The correlation or causation between two or more variables

• The reliability and validity of the results

Primary research is original, first-hand. The author of the source generated the research data they are using. 

Secondary Research: This is when an author of the source you are using gathers existing data, usually produced by someone else, and they then report, analyse or interpret that other person's data. This is also when you access other research projects or their data.

Each research method can be grouped into either qualitative or quantitative, depending on what and how you gather the data. You should be able to justify your choice. For example, giving a questionnaire with only ranking values as opposed to long answer questions. While there are many more examples in each method, I have narrowed down to the most common.

Primary Research Methods

• Survey

• Interview

• Focus group

• Observation

Survey

In the survey, the researcher collected data from a predetermined group of respondents (sample). Topics vary depending on the research objectives. In consumer research, for example, it might examine the attitudes, impressions, opinions, and levels of consumer satisfaction with a product or brand.

Before doing the survey, researchers determined which samples to take. The process we call sampling, which falls into two categories:

• Random sampling

  • Here, the sample has the same chance of being selected. Examples of methods are simple random sampling, systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling and cluster random sampling, and multi-stage random sampling.

• Non-random sampling

  • Under this approach, the sample chances of being selected are unequal. The methods are quota sampling, convenience sampling, snowball sampling, judgmental sampling, and self-selection.

After determining a sample, researchers conducted a survey, either by themselves or through a third party on their behalf. In addition to meeting face-to-face with respondents, researchers may do so by telephone or online channels such as email. For direct consumer research, they ask consumers or potential customers directly, usually using a questionnaire.

The questionnaire usually contains some quantitative or qualitative information. The initial page may contain questions about the consumer’s background, such as education, number of family members, and income. The next section contains some key questions to answer the objectives of the study.

The questions in the questionnaire might be:

• Closed question

• Open question

In closed questions, researchers provide alternative answers, and the respondent chooses the appropriate answer. The main advantage of closed questions is that the results are easy and fast to process and analyze. However, the weakness is that the answers are developed from the researchers’ perspective rather than the respondent. Thus, it has less room to explain the reasons behind consumer answers.

Meanwhile, in open questions, alternative answers are unavailable. Researchers encourage respondents to provide their own answers, thus providing opportunities to dig deeper into information. But, unfortunately, answers will vary between respondents. They would be challenging to compose and represent numerically.

Interview

An interview is similar to a survey, in which the researcher interacts directly with the respondent. It may be over the phone or in person. The interview process can be conducted anywhere, whether on the street or at home, depending on the sample selected.

However, instead of relying on a few closed questions, interviews mostly relied on open-ended questions. They delved deeper into the answers of respondents. Unlike surveys, the interviewer does not have a guide, resulting in more bias in asking questions. To avoid bias, they may carry notes with questions to ask.

Focus group

In this case, the researcher gathered several people to discuss a problem. They may be consumers or experts.

Discussion topics vary depending on the type of research. It might be about a new product, service, advertisement, or style of packaging. The researcher then posed these questions to group members and encouraged them to actively discuss their responses.

All group members are free to give their point of view. Here, the researcher usually acts as the discussion leader and records or notes the critical points.

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The main advantage of focus groups is that the information is more realistic and accurate. Because they involve respondents with similar characteristics, their answers or opinions may be less biased than the responses to individual interviews or questionnaires. Group members are free to state their opinions rather than simply answering questions as in surveys and interviews.

However, this method also has drawbacks. Members may be passive in the discussion, so the researcher takes a dominant role, thus influencing too much discussion. That will lead to biased conclusions in the end.

Observation

Observation does not involve direct interaction with respondents. Instead, the researcher watches and observes the respondents and makes notes about them. Take, for example, customer behavior research at a retail store. The researcher might note the number of visitors, their gender, what products they first turn to when they enter the store, what they put in a shopping cart, what they pay at the checkout, and how much.

This research is relatively inexpensive because the researcher does not ask the respondents one by one. Instead, they determined several observation locations to retrieve information.

However, a major drawback of observational research is the relatively limited amount of information. Also, bias often occurs. For example, in an observation at a retail store, visitors may show an unnatural attitude when they know they are being watched. They try to show their ideal self instead of behaving as usual.

Secondary Research Methods

There are many examples of data sources for secondary research. It varies depending on the research objectives. For example, data sources could come from:

Research reports

Reports that are written by companies, focus groups, research organisations, etc.

Academic textbooks or journals

They are usually poor in data with more qualitative information. They are usually useful in developing hypotheses as well as research methodologies. For example, you may have several alternative variables to research buying behaviour but don’t know which ones are significant. Well, textbooks and academic journals can help you in this case.

Government publications

The central statistical agency is an example. You can find a variety of valuable data there, including demographic, geographic, economic data, and so on.

Trade association (business association).

They are associations for domestic companies or companies from various countries. For international associations, the International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers (OICA) is an example. Usually, they present regular reports on the state of the markets in which their members operate.

Media

Business newspapers and magazines are valuable sources for gathering data. They may be printed or digital. Usually, they present some data to support the articles they write. Some may be free, while for others, you may need to subscribe. The Wall Street Journal, Bloomberg, The Financial Times are notable examples.

A research plan is a framework that shows how you intend to approach your topic. The plan can take many forms: a written outline, a narrative, a visual/concept map or a timeline. It's a document that will change and develop as you conduct your research.

Components of a research plan

1. Research conceptualisation - introduces your research question

2. Research methodology - describes your approach to the research question

3. Literature review, critical evaluation and synthesis - a systematic approach to locating,

4. Communication - geared toward an intended audience, shows evidence of your inquiry

What is a research plan?

A research plan is a documented overview of your entire research project, from the research you conduct to the results you expect to find at the end of the project (feeding into your own analysis and production). Within a research plan, you determine your goals, the steps to reach them and everything you need to gather your results. Research plans help orient a team, or just yourself, toward a set plan. It can help keep you organised with a full understanding of what needs to be done and when. This forms the basis for the rest of your coursework.

These can also be helpful for external members of the project. If you're administering a project that involves stakeholders or other kinds of external observers, a research plan can help keep everyone informed about the progress and general direction of the project. Professionals typically update their research plan document as objectives or resources change to offer everyone the most extensive information.

Why is a research plan important?

A research plan is important and beneficial for your project for many reasons, including:

• Helps organise your project

  • A research plan is important because it can help you organize the different elements of your project. With a research plan, you can predetermine who's involved in the project, what the project steps are and how you may document the information or results that you gain from the project. A research plan can help you organize your objectives, giving you the opportunity to create a tentative timeline before your project begins.

• Define your project's purpose

  • Creating a research plan before you begin your research can help you define the project's purpose. While you may understand the purpose of a project, aligning that goal with everyone else's expectations may require some explanation. Writing a brief section within your research plan about the project's goals and expectations can help everyone better understand how they contribute to the plan's purpose. Even if you're the only participant in the plan, restating your goal on paper can help you better align yourself with your own objectives.

• Eliminates distractions

  • A research plan can help you by limiting distractions throughout your project. If you create a document that outlines every step of a project, the project's purpose and a basic timeline, a team is less likely to get distracted with extra steps, items or objectives. A research plan helps ensure that the team only works on necessary items rather than extra plans or research items. If you're working on this research plan by yourself, having a documented idea of what you're going to do can help you organize your thoughts and better manage your expectations for the entire project.

• Schedules individual project tasks

  • If you're working with others during your research, creating a plan can help you schedule tasks for everyone. With a research plan, you can allocate different tasks to different participants based on the skills they bring to the project. If you're working on the project alone, having a research plan can help you set goals realistically. Setting realistic goals can help you accomplish them appropriately, helping improve your attitude and drive toward the project. If your research project is longer than a few weeks, setting tasks and goals for everyone can help them maintain appropriate expectations and deadlines over time.

How to write a research plan

The following seven steps are one example of how to write your research plan. Look at other sources to find alternative approaches that may work better for you. Research plans do not go into your evidence, but should form your journal. They keep you focussed and on-track.

1. Define the project purpose

The first step to creating a research plan for your project is to define why and what you're researching. Regardless of whether you're working with a team or alone, understanding the project's purpose can help you better define project goals. If you're researching as a group, defining the project's purpose can help you divide tasks into sections to make work more manageable. For example, if you define your task as researching the history of a country, you can give some members the responsibility of researching cultural history, while another researches conflict history and so on.

2. Identify individual objectives

Once you've defined your overall goal for a project, identify individual objectives or steps you need to accomplish that goal. Learning what individual steps you need to take to reach your goal can help you simplify and better understand your process. Large groups in a research project may benefit from identifying individual goals so that they can divide and allocate tasks according to who they have available to help. Even when working alone, dividing this period into several smaller steps can help you identify immediate goals that need attention right away and eventual goals that can wait.

3. Select a research method

After defining your goal and individual steps, the next step toward creating a research plan is to choose the method for your research. Establishing what methods of research you want to use can help you establish your processes before beginning the research period. You don't need to use a single research type for your project, but determining what kinds you need can help a team work together more efficiently. For example, some people may be better at researching through interviews than others. Knowing what research methods are available and who is best prepared for each can make task allocation easier.

4. Recruit participants and allocate tasks

If you can, try to recruit participants for your research project. This can make your work not only take less time but may simplify your research tasks. If you divide your work among a group of people, you can also divide work by individual proficiencies. Recruiting participants for your research project may enable you to focus on more managerial matters of the plan, such as how to display results, allocate tasks or document changes.

Allocating tasks in a team effort research plan can help you divide work appropriately. Consider allocating tasks as soon as you understand how many are necessary to complete a project. The more quickly and effectively you allocate tasks, the faster your team can work individually on parts of a project.

5. Prepare a project summary

A project summary or brief is a guide to your research project that you can use during recruitment interviews, meetings and field studies. A brief can help remind you which questions you may want to ask your potential recruits, what elements of the research project you want to discuss and how to keep meetings on topic. Project summaries may be separate from the research project itself and typically include an introduction and possibly even interview questions for recruits.

6. Create a realistic timeline

Once you've recruited everyone and determined the tasks for your project, consider placing every objective on a tentative timeline. If you're working with multiple people, this may take more than one meeting to establish a workable timeline. When creating your timeline, consider placing each goal on dates that allow for a little extra time if team members don't meet the deadline. This can help compensate for any unexpected developments or interruptions that may happen during the research.

It might also be beneficial to create a physical timeline in the form of a whiteboard display, paper sheet or digital presentation. This can help members visualize when tasks need to be accomplished. If possible, consider labelling tasks with their owners. Even if you're working alone on this project, creating your own timeline for tasks can help you view the full expanse of your research project with awareness.

7. Determine how to present your results

Before beginning your project, another step you can take is to determine how you want to display or present your research. Depending on the context and purpose of your research, there may be many ways you can display your research results. For example, if you're doing this for a company as a commission employee, you may want to present your research professionally, such as through a presentation, pamphlet or booklet. If you're doing this research by yourself or for your own needs, you may not need to have professional presentation methods unless you prefer to do so for organizational reasons. 

Sample template:

[Project title]

Project purpose: [Brief summary of the research plan's purpose]

Objective 1: [Summary of the first objective]

Objective 2: [Summary of the second objective]

Objective 3: [Summary of the third objective]

General Timeline

[Insert a timeline graphic or set of summary bullets with dates to create a tentative timeline]