The Compendium

STEM Sign Variation

Many specialized STEM signs are not yet standardized or widely adopted by ASL users, and some STEM terms have several common signs. Until recently, many STEM signs have been created ad hoc by interpreters, signing teachers, and/or deaf STEMists as needed -- these ad hoc signs are often initialized or don’t conceptually fit the STEM topic (e.g., signing BREATHE for fish respiration). 

There has also been a recent shift away from using fingerspelling, initialized signs, and non-conceptual signs. Deaf STEMists who use ASL have created and encouraged others to use lexicons that incorporate ASL classifiers and grammatical features, that integrate seamlessly with ASL without relying on borrowed English words. This is a positive shift, but it means that students may see several signs for the same concept and this can cause confusion, especially for younger students. 

Because STEM signs are in flux, interpreters in STEM need to pay attention to academic discourse between deaf scientists to keep up-to-date with emerging signs and trends. In addition, interpreters should be familiar enough with concepts to select the correct STEM sign when there are multiple and avoid using non-STEM signs or non-conceptual signs even when the English word is the same. 

An example term that illustrates several challenges is the word “energy.” In everyday discourse, the sign for ENERGY is located on the upper arm, with either an initialized or non-initialized handshape. In biology, a similar sign with a C-handshape is used in neutral space so it can be produced in neutral space or with other signs (e.g., for “photosynthesis”). For physics, the sign is modified to have a bent-L-handshape that can be used to show energy transfer more efficiently. On the other hand, in the context of sustainability, “energy” often refers to electricity and it may be more appropriate to sign ELECTRICITY. 

This Atomic Hands video discusses signs for “energy”: https://atomichands.com/videos/asl-signs-energy-potential-energy-kinetic-energy/ 

Fortunately for interpreters, deaf professionals in STEM can often understand non-conceptual signs and share preferred signs with the interpreter. On the other hand, deaf professionals typically have scientific discourse at a much higher level than deaf students, and the interpreter will need to be familiar enough with the concepts and signs to be able to keep up.

Conceptual vs. Literal Interpretation

Focusing on interpreting from spoken English into sign language, interpretations fall on a spectrum from conceptual on one end to literal on the other. A conceptual interpretation is translated into ASL, prioritizing the meaning of the message and not preserving the English words, whereas a literal interpretation or transliteration preserves many of the English words and word order. 

As with interpreting in any setting, the interpreter’s choice to produce a more conceptual vs. a more literal interpretation depends on several factors, including the interpreter’s own understanding of the message and the preference of the deaf professional. Interpreters working with deaf researchers, deaf academics, and deaf STEM professionals likely need to switch between literal and conceptual interpreting more often than in other settings.

Deaf professionals often prefer literal interpretation (transliteration) for technical research- or STEM-related conversations and conceptual interpretation in other settings. In discourse with their colleagues, deaf professionals often need to know the precise terminology being used because it has an exact meaning in their discipline, unlike everyday discourse. For example, the terms “scholarship,” “research,” “investigation,” and “audit” might all be signed the same way, but they have distinct and different meanings in the context of a faculty meeting.  

Teaching, Scholarship, and Service

These are generally the three main categories of activities that faculty must do. Faculty are expected to spend a certain percentage of their time on activities in each area. The percentage depends on the faculty’s discipline, department, type (see Types of Faculty), rank (see Tenure and Promotion), and institution (see Types of Institutions).

Teaching refers to course preparation, teaching, and tutoring. Course preparation can also include curriculum development. For unique considerations of interpreting with deaf professors, see Classroom Interpreting with Deaf Professors.

Scholarship refers to research, publication, and dissemination, and is discipline-specific. For example, psychology faculty may be expected to publish experimental studies in journals, while sociolinguists focus on book chapters; and faculty in the arts may be expected to contribute to juried art exhibitions. Scholarship often requires grants (see Grant Funding), publications (see Journal Publications), and/or attending conferences (see Academic Conferences).

Service refers to other administrative and/or public outreach activities. Faculty may serve on departmental or institutional committees, committees within their professional organizations, federal agency committees, or peer review committees for grant proposals or publications. For public outreach, faculty may consult or volunteer with local organizations related to their discipline.

Types of Faculty

Tenure-track faculty are newly hired faculty working towards tenure. Tenured faculty are eligible for certain benefits and given a permanent position, so they cannot be fired or laid off without strong justification. Traditionally, tenured faculty are expected to stay at their university for a long time. In exchange, tenure-track and tenured faculty are expected to be highly productive in all three areas of teaching, scholarship, and service. 

Tenured faculty generally follow these stages:

1. Assistant Professor: Tenure-track faculty who do not have tenure yet

2. Associate Professor: Faculty who have been granted tenure and are early- or mid-stage in their careers

3. Professor: Sometimes called “full professor,” this is the highest rank for tenured faculty

Non-Tenure-Track:

• Lecturers and Instructors have contracts that must be renewed every year or every several years. They are required to do little or no scholarship, and less service than tenure-track faculty.

• Research faculty primarily do scholarship and some service, with little or no teaching. 

• Professors of Practice or Clinical Professors often bring a wealth of practical or industry experience, possibly instead of having a graduate or doctoral degree. This is a newer type of faculty and different institutions have different expectations of teaching, scholarship, and service.

• Adjunct faculty have contracts per semester and may teach only one or two courses or a full courseload. They may teach at one institution or several at a time. They are not required to do any scholarship or service.

Any non-tenure-track position may have tracks, such as Lecturer to Senior Lecturer or Assistant to Associate Professor of Practice. 

Other titles may also be added to any of the tenure-track or non-tenure-track positions. Visiting refers to a temporary appointment, such as a postdoctorate fellow. Emeritus refers to a retired professor. Distinguished or Endowed faculty are usually full professors with distinction based on their professional work. Interim or Acting means the position is temporary; this is often used for a faculty who temporarily replaces someone who has stepped down from a leadership position until a search committee selects the new permanent faculty for the position. 

Department chairs and administrators such as Deans and Provosts are almost always tenured and usually full professors. 

Tenure and Promotion

These are central milestones for many faculty’s careers. Generally, assistant professors are hired into tenure-track positions and become associate professors when they are granted tenure. Assistant professors have around six years to develop their tenure portfolio before applying for tenure. During this time, they will be as productive as possible in all areas: teaching, scholarship, and service (see Teaching, Scholarship, and Service). 

The tenure review process includes many steps and sign-offs. It may be reviewed by the professor’s department, college, institutional tenure review committee, and/or the Provost or President of the institution. Because tenure is determined by the professor’s peers, it is especially important for them to network and develop good working relationships within their department and across campus; this is an area where interpreters can make a significant impact.

Tenure is not guaranteed or rubber-stamped, and professors are sometimes denied tenure even if they have not faced major issues. There are often some concrete metrics, especially number of publications, but also some ambiguity or subjectivity on the part of the review committees. 

For associate professors, the next step is promotion to professor. Associate professors also have around six years to develop their portfolio for promotion. The promotion process is similar, with the addition of external input. The promotion committee contacts well-known faculty in the same discipline to ask their opinion of the faculty who is up for promotion. Without the support of external faculty, the associate professor will not be granted promotion to full professor.

Therefore, associate professors must have a network of colleagues outside of their institution, usually developed at academic conferences, and must have a good reputation according to their peers. This is another area where interpreters (or lack thereof) can have a significant impact, especially for deaf faculty attending conferences (see Academic Conferences). 

Types of Institutions

The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education maintains detailed classifications of all institutions. For purposes of interpreting, there are a few general types of institutions that are helpful to know.

Research-intensive or R1 institutions have large amounts of external research funding and large research-based PhD programs. Many R1s are attached to medical schools and/or research hospitals (clinical research pulls in a lot of grant funding). R1s are likely to have a high proportion of research faculty.

Research-active institutions have significant external research funding and PhD programs, but not at the level of R1 institutions. Research-active institutions are also likely to have research faculty.

Teaching institutions or undergraduate institutions do not emphasize scholarship. There may be some research programs and external grant funding, but most or all faculty will spend more time on teaching than scholarship. These institutions may have a few Master’s or even PhD programs, but most of their graduates are from Bachelor’s programs. Traditionally, undergraduate institutions have been called colleges, while universities are institutions with significant graduate programs.

PhD Program Structures

Traditionally, students selected a PhD program in a specific discipline and were expected to mainly take classes and do research with faculty in their specific department. Today, the trend is for PhD programs to be cross-disciplinary and flexible, so students take classes in several departments and may work with faculty outside of their home department. These are sometimes called “umbrella” programs.

The application for a PhD program includes typical materials as well as a personal statement, a key component. In the personal statement, the applicant describes their experience, future goals, and interests. A research statement or diversity statement may also be required.

The top applicants may be asked for a phone or Zoom interview, and then will be invited to an interview weekend at the PhD program. During the interview weekend, the applicant will meet with current PhD students and faculty in their prospective department. This is an opportunity for both sides to make sure that the applicant and the program are a good fit, and especially a good time for the applicant to meet with faculty who they may be working with.

Students in PhD programs typically spend the first year or two taking courses and doing lab rotations. After two years, students are required to take qualifying or comprehensive exams, often called “quals” or “comps.” The exams may include written or essay components and/or a panel interview, and are intended to test the students’ in-depth knowledge of their discipline based on the courses they have taken. After passing the exams, the students become PhD candidates; and some programs also grant Master’s degrees. If a student leaves the program after this point without defending their dissertation, they are called “all but dissertation” (ABD).

At this point, PhD candidates shift to focus on their own research project for their dissertation. They pick a lab (or multiple) to work in for the next three to five years and select faculty advisors to be on their dissertation committee. 

The next step for PhD candidates is to defend their dissertation proposal. The candidate prepares a detailed proposal for their dissertation research and then presents it to their dissertation committee. (The dissertation proposal typically includes Introduction, Literature Review, and Methods sections; see Journal Article Sections.) The committee asks questions to test the candidate’s knowledge of their field and related work, and the candidate must answer without referencing any notes or other materials.

After the candidate successfully defends their proposal, they work only on their dissertation for several years. (The dissertation includes similar sections as journal articles; see Journal Article Sections.) The final step is the dissertation defense. During the defense, the candidate gives a public presentation about their work and then has a closed-door meeting with their dissertation committee. The committee makes the final decision. If the candidate successfully defends their dissertation, then they are granted the PhD and can graduate. 

This article presents a case study of designated interpreters interpreting for a deaf researcher’s PhD dissertation defense: Designated or preferred? A deaf academic and two signed language interpreters working together for a PhD defence: A case study of best practice

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is generally focused on describing a phenomenon, capturing richer data from fewer samples than quantitative research. While quantitative research is driven by one or more hypotheses, qualitative research is driven by one or more research questions. Studies using qualitative methods usually have less breadth but more depth; because of the narrow scope, findings may not generalize to broader populations. 

Data collected using qualitative methods is generally based on experiences or concepts and not measurable. In ASL, “qualitative research” is often signed STORY RESEARCH or abbreviated Q-U-A-L RESEARCH. Although qualitative research is often narrative-based, studies may include descriptive statistics and other numerical data that helps explain the topic. 

Qualitative research often uses thematic analysis to identify results. There are many variations on thematic analysis, but the basic idea starts with two or more researchers coding the narrative data. When coding, researchers mark important quotes and code them with a description. This results in many unique codes that form a codebook. The researchers then merge and condense codes into a few themes, which represent the main findings from the data.

Qualitative research findings are often triangulated, meaning that multiple data points or multiple methods identify the same findings. Triangulation indicates that the findings are robust and trustworthy.

Common Qualitative Paradigms and Methods

There are several common approaches used in qualitative research, as well as others not described here. Each approach is based on a paradigm with its own theory and assumptions. 

• Grounded theory, with the goal of identifying theory based on data

• Ethnography, with the goal of studying the culture of a setting in-depth over time

• Phenomenology, with the goal of describing a phenomenon in the way that its participants experience and understand it

• Case study, with the goal of comprehensively analyzing a specific situation or issue

There are also different data collection methods. Each paradigm commonly uses certain methods over others, but in general a study using any paradigm can use whichever data collection method suits the study best. These are some common data collection methods:

• Interviews 

• Focus groups

• Observations

• Document review

• Discourse analysis

• Surveys 

Common Qualitative Software

These are also called CAQDAS, Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software. Several common programs are:

• Dedoose 

• ELAN (note: Dedoose and ELAN allow researchers to code ASL in its original video format, rather than transcribing it in English, so anecdotally they seem popular for research with ASL users)

• MaxQDA

• NVivo

• Atlas.ti

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is generally focused on testing a hypothesis using quantifiable, measurable data. Traditional research studies that test a hypothesis through controlled experiments are quantitative. Studies using quantitative methods have more breadth but less depth. Researchers often, but not always, expect findings to generalize to the broader population that is similar to the sample group included in the experiments. 

Data collected using quantitative methods is generally numerical. In ASL, “quantitative research” is often signed NUMBER RESEARCH or abbreviated Q-U-A-N-T RESEARCH. As with qualitative research, however, even quantitative studies may include some narrative data to describe the subject.

Quantitative methods use validity and reliability to measure if the findings are trustworthy. Validity means that a test captures the data that the researchers intend to capture. Reliability means that the results are consistent when the test is given multiple times. 

Common Quantitative Methods

• Experiments

• Data analysis (e.g., testing for statistical significance)

Common Quantitative Software

• Excel

• JMP

• Julia

• Matlab

• Minitab

• Python

• R

• SAS

• SPSS

• Stata

• Tableau

Mixed Methods

Mixed methods include both quantitative and qualitative methods, either used sequentially or simultaneously. With sequential mixed methods, data is collected using one method and then analyzed before collecting data with another method (e.g., doing interviews and then creating an experiment). With simultaneous mixed methods, both methods are used at the same time and the data is merged before analysis (e.g., doing a survey with both ratings and open-ended questions).

Dry Labs, Wet Labs, and Fieldwork

Dry labs often use computers and/or human participants in behavioral experiments. It is a controlled setting and there are no hazardous chemicals or specimens and usually less high-tech equipment than wet labs. The high-tech equipment in dry labs is usually computer-based. Dry labs are more likely to use qualitative or statistical quantitative research methods (see Research Paradigms).

Wet labs use liquid, cells, or other specimens for research. When most people think of a stereotypical “science lab,” they envision a wet lab. The work in wet labs may be called bench science, especially for clinical research (e.g., “bench to bedside” refers to translating lab research findings to patient care). Biological, chemical, and clinical research is often done in wet labs. Wet labs usually have many types of high-tech equipment to do experiments (e.g., mass spectrometers and centrifuges) and to keep the lab safe (e.g., fume hoods used to contain and vent chemicals). Wet labs are likely to use quantitative research methods (see Quantitative Research). 

Fieldwork or field studies collect data as it exists in the “real world” outside of a controlled research lab. Therefore, fieldwork can be unpredictable and involve risks for researchers. Many disciplines conduct field studies, including anthropology, linguistics, archaeology, zoology, ecology, and geology. For example, fieldwork is used in anthropology to conduct ethnographic studies in which the researcher observes participants’ behavior, possibly along with interviews and/or focus groups. Another example is fieldwork used in ecology, where researchers collect environmental data from a location outside of research facilities.

See Line-of-Sight and Positioning Challenges for some suggestions on how to manage common scenarios in wet labs.

Lab Safety

Wet labs typically include many hazards, both from the equipment and from the specimens used in research. Research specimens may include biological material (e.g., human cells), infectious material (e.g., viruses or bacteria), and/or chemicals, any of which can harm people in the lab. 

Fieldwork also includes hazards. For ethnographic studies, depending on the setting they are studying, researchers may go into potentially unsafe situations, or be around people with unpredictable behavior. When collecting ecological field data, researchers must be prepared for environmental conditions such as weather, insects, animals, and traffic. Fieldwork can also be challenging because of sexual harassment, discrimination against marginalized (especially BIPOC) researchers, and/or inaccessibility for disabled researchers.

Interpreters working in wet labs or in the field should take the same safety training as all lab members. Interpreters may need to be careful about where they stand and what they touch, or they may need to wear personal protective equipment (PPE) such as goggles, lab coats, or hard hats. If an interpreter notices a hazard or witnesses an incident, they should intervene and/or call for help. The interpreter has the same responsibility for safety as the other lab members.

Grant Funding

Grants are complex and vary considerably between different funding agencies. Grants may be funded by government agencies, non-profit agencies, and/or foundations. The researcher who receives grant funding is referred to as the principal investigator (PI). The PI is most often faculty, but graduate (especially PhD) students can also apply for certain grants. 

The pre-award phase includes the grant proposal and review. First, the agency announces a call for proposals or request for proposals (RFP), with a description of the type of projects they want to fund and a deadline to apply. In response, the PI (and team) submits a grant proposal. Most agencies assign program officers (POs) to specific grants, so the program officer is the point of contact if the PI has questions about the grant.

Grant proposals are dozens or even hundreds of pages long and require sign-offs from the PI’s and collaborators’ home department, grant department, and/or finance department. Each RFP has specific requirements for what to include in a proposal, and generally it includes justification for why this research is important, a description of research activities, a budget, a list of personnel (faculty, staff, and students), and a timeline.

Grant proposals are typically reviewed by a review panel of paid or volunteer professionals who are experts in the grant topic area(s). There may be multiple rounds of review. 

Deaf faculty may serve on review panels, where they meet with the other reviewers, rate each grant according to its criteria, and ultimately determine which grants are funded and which are not. Grant review panels often take a full day or multiple days and reviewers are expected to read and take notes on all of the proposals before the meeting. When interpreting for grant review panels, interpreters need to thoroughly review all grant proposals to be prepared for the fast-paced discussion between reviewers.

It usually takes several months for the PI to find out whether they have been awarded the grant. If the PI is awarded the grant, they receive an official notice of award and this starts the award phase, in which the researchers do what they said they would do in the proposal. At an institutional level, this may be called the “post-award phase,” meaning activities after receiving an award.

Finally, the post-award phase occurs after the grant ends. At this point, the PI must submit any final reports about their research activities and budget. If they have funds left and other research activities to do, they may request a no-cost extension (NCE) to continue doing their research until they use up remaining funds.

Managing Grant Funds

Faculty may have several different accounts to manage. Generally, grant funding includes both direct costs, meaning funds to pay for expected research costs such as student research assistants and supplies, and indirect costs, meaning funds that are distributed to the institution to cover overhead costs. 

The direct costs on a grant are subject to strict rules, which vary by funding agency and specific grant. The direct costs must align with the budget in the original proposal and must be directly related to research activities. 

The indirect costs on a grant are often close to 50%, meaning that 50% of the grant budget is not directly spent on research activities. The indirect funds go to the institution and are distributed to the office of research, the PI’s college and/or department, the PI’s research center, and finally the PI’s own discretionary account.

The PI’s discretionary account, which may also be called “facilities & administration” or “F&A,” can be used flexibly for expenses that are not covered directly by a grant. This may include hiring an extra person or buying lunch for the research lab once in a while. The PI can generally spend their discretionary funding as they want, with few restrictions. If the PI is paid for consulting or charges a fee to loan equipment to another lab, their payment goes into the discretionary account.

The budget is typically formatted as a spreadsheet, so terms like “line item” refers to a category of spending and its allocated budget amount. The original budget is usually modified during the course of the grant, so funds can be moved “between lines” if one category does not have as many expenses as expected and the remaining money can be used for a different category.

Journal Publications

Journal publications, also called journal articles, are an important form of dissemination for faculty’s scholarship work. (Not all disciplines expect journal publications for scholarship; see Teaching, Scholarship, and Service). A manuscript is a draft journal article. Each journal has its own specific process and processes vary considerably, but this section covers the general process.

Manuscripts are submitted to journals, often on a rolling basis but sometimes with a deadline. Most journals use a peer review process, so they convene a panel of experts in the same discipline to read submitted manuscripts and determine which are accepted. Peer review is often “blind” to ensure a fair review, meaning that the reviewers cannot see the authors of the manuscript and/or the author(s) cannot know who reviewed their article. 

The peer reviewers decide whether each paper is rejected, accepted, or accepted with edits. Journals may have other types of responses or differentiate between accepted with minor or major edits. For any decision, the peer reviewers send feedback and comments to the authors. If the paper is accepted with edits, the authors are expected to modify the paper according to the reviewers’ feedback and then resubmit, and the journal will accept it as long as the authors made the suggested edits. 

The manuscript review process takes several months and sometimes over a year. Journals do not allow authors to send the same manuscript to multiple journals to be reviewed at the same time, so it can take a long time for authors to get a manuscript published if their first or second submissions are rejected.

Authorship 

Authorship refers to the order of authors listed on the publication. In most disciplines, the first author is the person who contributed the most to the project and to writing the article and the last author is the supervisor or principal investigator of the grant. Other authors are ordered by their contribution to the project. There are exceptions -- for example, in mathematics, authors are ordered simply by last name. 

Because of this practice, first authorship is more prestigious and carries more weight for tenure and promotion portfolios (see Tenure and Promotion). The discussion about authorship can be difficult because it requires deciding which team members will be included as authors on a publication and requires the team to agree who will receive the most credit (as first author). Teams should discuss authorship early in the process so that everyone is on the same page.

The dynamics around authorship are improving, partly thanks to guidelines from funding agencies such as the NIH, but it is still not uncommon to find unethical behavior. Sometimes the unethical behavior is explicit, such as naming a well-respected faculty even though they did not contribute meaningfully to the project or removing an author right before submitting the manuscript. Other times, misunderstandings can lead to problems, for example if team members disagree about who did the most work and deserves first authorship.

Journal Article Sections

Each discipline and journal has standard expectations for which sections are included in articles. These are the typical sections:

• Abstract: Summarizes the research question or hypothesis, methodology, and findings in 200-300 words

• Introduction: Provides introductory context to the topic being studied and the methodology; may also include a summary of the findings similar to the abstract

• Literature review: Summarizes previous research on this topic and identifies the gap(s) that this study aims to address (often called “lit review”); this is sometimes part of the introduction rather than a separate section

• Methodology: Describes and justifies the specific frameworks and/or methodologies used for this study in enough detail that another researcher can replicate the study; often called “methods” and some disciplines use “methods and materials”

• Results: Reports major findings in this study, including statistics or numerical summaries from quantitative data and quotes or themes from qualitative data

• Discussion: Interprets the results in context of the literature review and describes what the results contribute to understanding the topic; often includes the study limitations

• Conclusion: Restates the context, findings, and main points; may include the study limitations and often includes suggestions for future work on this topic

Similar sections are used in many types of academic writing, including lab reports, graduate class assignments, grant proposals, book chapters, and PhD dissertations (see PhD Program Structures). Conference posters and presentations about research also often follow a similar order when presenting information (see Academic Conferences).

Research Ethics

Any type of research that involves data collection must follow ethical guidelines. The ethical guidelines for working with human research participants come from the Belmont Report, which outlines the principles:

• Respect for persons, ensuring that research participants have autonomy and that vulnerable populations have special protections

• Beneficence, ensuring that research participants are not harmed and that the possible benefits outweigh the possible risks of participating in a research study

• Justice, ensuring that research studies do not exclude populations or only study certain populations unless it is justified because of the research topic 

To ensure that research follows the Belmont principles, federal agencies require individuals doing research to take training to learn about ethics and require institutions to have research oversight boards. The individual training is often done through the CITI Program, and individuals receive CITI certification (CITI is often pronounced like "city"). 

At institutions, research oversight is done by Institutional Review Boards (IRBs). For any new research project that involves human participants or biomedical samples from humans, the researcher(s) must submit a proposal to the IRB for approval before they can start any research activities. The proposal must include specific details about informed consent, what data will be collected, how the data will be collected, and how the collected data will be used, stored, and shared.

The IRB may take weeks or months to review the proposal and often requires clarification or modification of the plan before approving it. If a research project includes collaboration between multiple institutions, often the IRB of each institution must independently review and approve the research proposal.

Institutions that use animals for research, teaching, or testing must also have an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Similar to the IRB, the IACUC oversees animal facilities and any activities involving animals to ensure their welfare and humane treatment. 

Session Types

Each session at a conference has a name that carries some information about what to expect. Here are several common types of sessions:

Keynotes are usually presented by someone well-known and intended to draw attendees to the conference. Most conferences have one or two keynotes, but some have several. There are often keynote sessions at the beginning and/or end of the conference to open and/or close by reiterating the conference themes and goals. No other sessions are scheduled at the same time as the keynote. The keynote presentation at the end of a conference may be called an Endnote.

Plenary sessions are also large presentations with no other sessions scheduled at the same time. Both plenary and keynote sessions are presented in a way that everyone in the audience can understand and relate to them. (At some conferences, this means they are less technical. However, at conferences for a narrow STEM discipline, plenaries are still likely to include advanced and technical content.) 

Concurrent sessions, also called breakout sessions, refer to any block of sessions that occur at the same time. They are often grouped by theme, so there may be a block of scientific concurrent sessions or professional development concurrent sessions, and each session generally appeals to a different audience. Some conferences note the intended audience by subdiscipline or career stage. 

Workshops are educational and focus on applied topics. They are often scheduled for several hours or a full day and often require registration and/or additional fees in advance.

Oral presentation sessions consist of several presentations by researchers about their research studies and findings. These may be called science talks, paper sessions, or other names. Presenters are generally given 12-15 minutes to present and then 5-8 minutes for questions from the audience, and there are several presenters scheduled for each session. This is an important opportunity for presenters to get feedback on their work and for anyone to network and learn about researchers doing similar work.

Lightning talk sessions are similar to oral presentation sessions, but with shorter presentation times. Presenters give short talks about their research, generally 5-10 minutes with only a couple minutes for questions from the audience. At some conferences, lightning talks are used to showcase undergraduate or graduate student research.

Poster sessions typically take place in a large open area with rows of posters. They are usually loud and crowded, and therefore can be difficult to manage. See Interpreting in Poster Sessions for more information.

The exhibit hall, or expo hall or showcase, is a space for vendors and representatives of institutions, organizations, companies, and other relevant groups to network with conference attendees. See Interpreting in Exhibit Halls for more information.

The term “oral presentation” is commonly used and not necessarily deaf-friendly. In general, signing STAGE or PRESENTATION is more clear than using the word ORAL. Regardless, it is important to differentiate between oral presentations and poster presentations and signing PRESENTATION alone might not be clear.

Interpreting with Deaf Conference Presenters

Conferences generally announce a “call for papers” and then researchers submit proposals (abstracts) for oral presentations, poster presentations, or sessions. Proposals are due several months before the conference. This gives time for reviewers to select which presentations are accepted and then notify presenters with enough time to register early and arrange travel. Session proposals are due even earlier than presentation proposals.

Poster presentations are the most common, especially for students and early-career faculty. See Interpreting Poster Sessions for more information about what to expect.

Anecdotally, some deaf presenters prefer oral presentations because the environment is more controlled. While poster presentations are loud and unpredictable, oral presentations are more structured and quieter (only one person speaking at a time). If the presenter uses hearing or lipreading, oral presentation sessions are likely more accessible. Also, live captioning can be arranged for oral presentations but not for poster presentations. 

It is common for presenters to stay in the room after the session ends (or go into the hallway if there is another session right after) for follow-up discussion with audience members. It is also common for attendees to find presenters at networking events to talk about their research. These are key moments for deaf researchers to network with others in their field and find potential collaborators and/or allies. See Importance of Networking for more information.

Regardless of the format, it is critical for interpreters to see deaf presenters’ materials and, if possible, meet with them in advance. Deaf presenters and interpreters also need to plan logistics. When a session is led by a deaf presenter, especially if there are deaf attendees in the audience, it often requires more than two interpreters to ensure that all deaf people can see the interpreter clearly and interpreters can still switch off to take breaks. If there are two or three deaf presenters in a session, it is ideal to have at least one interpreter assigned to each presenter, and possibly an interpreter for the audience. 

Interpreting in Poster Sessions

Poster sessions are loud, crowded, and unpredictable, creating challenges for interpreters and deaf presenters (similar to Interpreting Exhibit Halls). During poster sessions, attendees can view and interact freely with presenters who are standing next to their posters. Presenters often practice a 3-4 minute presentation to summarize their research for attendees, but attendees may only ask specific questions (e.g., “why did you choose this method?”) or may ask for a full run-through of the poster. 

The major goal for a poster presenter is to get feedback about their research. Poster presentations allow for flexible and in-depth conversations. Another goal is networking, potentially to find collaborators and to see what other research is being done in the same area. For students and early-stage professionals, poster presentations are also a way to practice public speaking.

Poster sessions are loud, sometimes uncomfortably loud. Interpreters may not be able to position themselves ideally, or they may need to stand where they can see the hearing person’s face to hear them better (and hearing attendees may need to look at the interpreter, too). Poster sessions are also often crowded, so positioning may be difficult. 

Interpreters should be mindful about conversation with deaf poster presenters when there are no attendees at the poster. Attendees may not stop at a poster if it looks like another attendee is already there. Anecdotally, it often works well to stand a few extra steps away (which still allows some signed conversation) and/or to step back if another attendee is walking toward the poster. At a conference with few deaf attendees, it may be helpful to ask the deaf presenter ahead of time about their preferred strategies to redirect attendees who are confused about the interpreter -- sometimes a simple gesture is enough and sometimes the presenter or interpreter needs to explain their roles. 

Poster sessions are normally 1-2 hours and the presenters are expected to be with their posters the entire time. Like presenters, interpreters should wear good shoes and bring water (especially when voicing for signing presenters). It is better to have two interpreters if possible, especially to switch off for longer sessions and/or to provide support in loud sessions.

Interpreting in Exhibit Halls

Exhibit halls are loud and crowded, creating challenges for interpreters and deaf attendees (similar to Interpreting in Poster Sessions). In exhibit halls, exhibitors host tables, displays, and/or events to engage with attendees. Exhibitors may include companies demonstrating products, companies or universities recruiting attendees, publishing houses demonstrating textbooks, affiliated conferences, affiliated professional societies, special interest groups, and others. 

The major goal of exhibit halls is networking, although attendees may have specific goals as well -- learn about new technology or products, meet recruiters, learn more about an exhibitor, and so on. Sometimes attendees go to collect exhibitor swag, and conferences often have incentives like raffles or events to draw attendees.

As with poster sessions, exhibit halls can be so loud that interpreters need to stand so they can see the hearing speaker to hear them better (and vice versa). Because exhibit halls are also crowded, interpreters and deaf attendees may need to be creative and flexible with positioning and line of sight. Interpreters and/or deaf attendees may need to quickly explain the interpreter’s role to exhibitors who are confused.

Importance of Networking

Networking is a major goal of conferences. Students and early-stage professionals with limited conference experience might be overwhelmed or prefer to focus on their science at first, but networking will be at the forefront for mid-stage professionals and attendees looking for other opportunities (postdoctoral fellowships, employment, grant collaborators etc.). 

Research today is rarely done alone -- many grant funding agencies prefer to see teams of collaborators rather than a single PI, and even PIs without collaborators usually need to consult with colleagues about some aspects of their work. Conferences are an opportunity to identify potential collaborators and to keep up with other researchers working on similar research topics.

In addition, faculty need to plan ahead for eventual external references for their promotion portfolios (see Tenure and Promotion). The external references should be well-respected in their field and should be familiar with the faculty’s research career, and their opinions can make or break the decision to promote the faculty to full professor.

Therefore, interpreters play an important role. Interpreters need to prioritize not only the technical content, but also the relationship-building aspect of interactions. When voicing, it is critical for the interpreter to make appropriate word choices and interpret into English in the same register, with the same technical vocabulary as their hearing colleagues.

Many conferences are unfamiliar with deaf attendees, so interpreters may need to repeatedly explain their role and problem-solve access issues while being friendly and professional so that the conference does not retaliate against the deaf attendee. Following the deaf academic’s lead, the interpreter should also be friendly to mitigate any apprehension from other attendees who have never interacted with a deaf person before. 

Advocating for Access Services at Conferences

Almost always, deaf attendees do have a legal right to access services at conferences under the ADA Title III (“places of public accommodation”). This includes interpreters and/or live captioning for all sessions and conference activities There are some exceptions, such as low-budget organizations claiming that providing access services would be an undue burden. The NAD advocacy letter on “Conferences, Conventions, and Workshops” outlines the legal responsibilities of conferences to provide access services.

These resources provide more practical information for attendees requesting access services and for conferences arranging access services:

• For deaf/HH attendees: Requesting access services at a conference

• Conference guidelines for Deaf/HH accessibility

• Designing accessible events for people with disabilities and deaf individuals

When interpreting with deaf professors teaching a class, it is critical for the interpreter(s) to follow the deaf professor’s lead and ensure that the deaf professor has access to the information they need to manage their class. This requires teamwork and open communication between the interpreter(s) and deaf professor.

The deaf professor and interpreter(s) need to work together to develop effective strategies for the interpreter to share information about what is going on in class (e.g., side comments or distracting behavior). They may develop shorthand phrases or signals to efficiently convey information or requests. Above all, the interpreter(s) need to be sure that the deaf professor has access to all of the information they need.

Interpreters need to be sure to use authoritative language at an appropriate register when voicing so that students recognize their professor’s expertise, and match the professor’s tone when asking questions or making statements. Similarly, interpreters need to be careful when interpreting for student presentations to produce a message that preserves any errors, pauses, or stumbles by the student. 

As with many settings, interpreter(s) also need to be sure to prep and review class materials ahead of time. This is especially important in the classroom because the deaf professor should be the expert and source of information throughout the class, and it is important that the interpreters can convey the information accurately and with as few errors or corrections as possible.

Characteristics of "Good" STEM Interpreters

Background knowledge is key. The more the interpreter knows about the discipline, topic, and/or project, the better. When prepping, the interpreter needs to learn the right lingo for interpreting into English, including pronouncing unfamiliar words. This will also help the interpreter catch and better understand discourse in English. Ideally, the interpreter will understand the concepts and know their signs, but even just recognizing words without understanding the concept is helpful because the deaf STEM professional can fill in the gaps by sharing signs or spelling. 

Both specific prep and background knowledge is important. Online resources like YouTube and Khan Academy are helpful for general knowledge. Large journals like Science and Nature have news and blogs that are academic but accessible for non-experts. Finally, reading journals in the STEM discipline is also good prep, although it takes practice and requires a good fund of knowledge in the topic. 

Specific prep is also important, and using consistent interpreters is helpful. Interpreters in STEM must take time to prep as well as they can. Deaf STEM professionals are used to educating their interpreters (before, during, and after interpreting), but many of them see it as investing time and energy in an interpreter who will continue working with them. Having a different, unfamiliar interpreter every meeting is ineffective in STEM and the burden mainly falls on the deaf professional. 

Most deaf STEM professionals have one or several primary or preferred interpreters and a pool of secondary interpreters. If an interpreter is subbing or working in a setting for the first time, it is critical to contact the deaf STEM professional and/or their regular interpreters ahead of time for information. If possible, it is ideal for new interpreters to a setting to be “mentored in” by observing and then teaming with a regular interpreter. (See Designated Interpreting for more discussion.)

As discussed in Conceptual vs. Literal Interpretation, deaf STEM professionals often want more literal interpretation (transliteration) for STEM and technical discussions, but want more conceptual interpretation for everything else. Therefore, interpreters in STEM should be flexible and able to adapt to the professional’s preference. 

Managing Unfamiliar Topics

It is likely for interpreters in STEM and research to frequently encounter terms, acronyms, and concepts they don’t understand. Deaf STEM professionals generally prefer that the interpreter says they didn’t understand something and tries to convey the term, for example by saying “sounds like…” and giving their best guess of how to spell it. Interpreters in STEM should try not to omit or gloss over details they don’t understand because those details may be critical aspects of the discussion.

Interpreters should not interrupt or ask the hearing speaker to clarify unless the deaf STEM professional asks them to. The deaf STEM professional can often fill in the gaps and either share a sign or correction in the moment or explain it to the interpreter later. If they still don’t understand, they may ask the interpreter to clarify with the speaker or they may prefer to talk with the hearing person one-on-one to get clarification later, rather than interrupting the flow of a meeting.

When interpreting into English, however, the interpreter should get clarification from the deaf signer anytime they are unsure. The deaf STEM professional should “sound like” their peers, so the interpreter needs to use the right academic register and jargon. As discussed in STEM Sign Variation, there may be one sign that can be used for multiple similar but distinct English words, so the interpreter may need to pause the deaf signer to ask which English word they should use.

Line-of-Sight and Positioning Challenges

Although line-of-sight and positioning issues can come up in many different settings, there are some common STEM settings that present unique challenges. 

Lab benches. This refers to wet lab workspaces (see Dry Labs, Wet Labs, and Fieldwork). Traditional lab benches often have long, shallow workspaces with shelving down the middle. With shelving, interpreters cannot stand on the opposite side of the workbench. If a hearing lab member is standing or sitting on one side of the deaf scientist, the interpreter may be able to stand on the other side, but that makes it more difficult for the deaf scientist to look between them if the hearing lab member is demonstrating something. 

Some possible solutions:

• If the deaf scientist can work or move to the last seat on the workbench, the interpreter can stand at the end, at a 90-degree angle 

• Encourage hearing lab members to explain first, not explain while doing

• It may be easier for the deaf scientist to work at an angle, facing slightly towards the hearing lab member with the interpreter standing behind them

Fume hoods and biosafety cabinets. Fume hoods and biosafety cabinets have direct ventilation so that scientists can safely handle chemicals or infectious materials; they may also operate at negative pressure and/or be sealed so that scientists can only use built-in glove sleeves (see Dry Labs, Wet Labs, and Fieldwork). Fume hoods have a clear glass or plastic front, with the sides and back being opaque plastic or metal. It is usually difficult to position interpreters close to either the science work in the hood or to hearing lab members standing next to the deaf scientist. 

Some possible solutions:

• Place a mirror inside the fume hood so that the interpreter can stand behind and the deaf scientist can see their reflection

• Place an iPad inside the fume hood with the interpreter nearby on Zoom (or similar)

• Encourage hearing lab members to explain first, not explain while doing

Deaf Professional/Designated Interpreter Model

As described in Deaf Professionals and Designated Interpreters (2008, p. 5), “The designated interpreter is a dynamic and active participant in the deaf professional’s environment.” The chapter authors in this edited book describe the DI’s in-depth knowledge of the deaf professional’s work and their role as a member of the team with the deaf professional and their colleagues. 

In the deaf professional/DI paradigm, DIs are considered to be full-time staff and integral team members with a long-term commitment to working with the deaf professional. However, there are other effective ways for deaf professionals to work with interpreters. See Designated vs. Preferred Interpreters for more discussion.

As a team, deaf professionals and DIs must have good communication and share feedback (and accept it!) when needed. Deaf professionals generally prefer interpreters who are adaptable and open to communicating with them over interpreters who may have more technical expertise but are less adaptable. 

One of the major responsibilities of a DI is to ensure that the deaf professional has access to social opportunities and social information (see Tenure and Promotion, and Importance of Networking for discussion of why this is important in academic settings). To facilitate the deaf professional’s relationship with coworkers, it is also generally beneficial for the DI to have good professional rapport with their coworkers as well. This allows coworkers to feel more comfortable with the DI and consider them part of the team. 

In deaf professional/DI relationships, interpreting can become seamless, so the deaf professional has full understanding of the interpreted message and the DI can express the deaf professional’s message in a way that is true to their intent, tone, and voice. 

Interpreting with Authority for Deaf Leaders

Interpreters are used to working in settings where the deaf person has lower status than the hearing person -- for example, a deaf student in class with a hearing professor or a deaf patient seeing a hearing doctor. Deaf professionals, however, are more likely to be in positions of authority or have higher status than some or all of the hearing people in the room. 

When interpreting for deaf professionals in leadership roles, the interpreter must match the deaf professional’s tone and delivery of the message. This often requires the interpreter to use powerful language rather than powerless language to express authority and leadership. When interpreting into English, the interpreter’s word choices and tone affects how the audience perceives the deaf professional. Listeners make subconscious judgments based on vocal tone, so the interpreter's intentional and unintentional vocal qualities affect how listeners perceive the deaf professional.

Some examples of powerless language include:

• Intensifiers, such as “really” or “very”

• Hedges, such as “I think” or “maybe”

• Hesitations, such as “um” or “you know”

• Questioning intonation, using rising tone at the end of a sentence so that it sounds more like a question than a statement

• Question statements, using a question instead of a command, such as “could you email them?” instead of “please email them”

As discussed in Classroom Interpreting with Deaf Professors, Importance of Networking, and Managing Unfamiliar Topics, interpreters working with deaf STEM professionals should be especially mindful of their register, tone, and delivery to ensure that they match the intent of the deaf professional and are perceived as equals by their colleagues.  

The book chapter Interpreters, Conversation Style, and Gender at Work gives an excellent overview of powerless vs. powerful language in the context of interpreting with deaf professionals.

Role of Designated Interpreters

DIs may find themselves in dual roles or conflicting roles. Sometimes this is because the DI is not actively interpreting 40 hours/week, so they may have additional administrative responsibilities. In addition, because DIs are part of the team, they may be asked to do things that interpreters typically would not do. For example, deaf professionals often expect their DIs to share their subjective perceptions after interpreting to help them better “read between the lines” or navigate certain situations. 

It is critical for DIs and deaf professionals to keep open communication, especially around dual roles and additional responsibilities beyond interpreting. Deaf professionals and their DIs should have clear boundaries for the DI’s role and what they will or will not do. They should work together to communicate with coworkers if needed.

One of the challenges deaf professionals and DIs face is having difficulty justifying a full-time staff position for a DI. In institutions with several deaf professionals, there may be a couple DIs who rotate between them so that they are regularly interpreting. In settings with only one deaf professional, the DI may have additional administrative responsibilities or may be expected to contribute to research activities. 

Designated vs. Preferred Interpreters

Deaf professionals may choose not to work with one primary interpreter as a DI or may not work in an organization that is willing to provide a DI. Instead, deaf professionals may have preferred interpreters. Preferred interpreters may include freelance interpreters or specific staff interpreters in large organizations. 

Some deaf professionals prefer to have different interpreters for different settings, rather than one DI who interprets everything. Even deaf professionals with a DI may work with preferred interpreters when traveling or when their DI is not available. Other deaf professionals may have limited need for interpreting and so can work with preferred interpreters as-needed rather than having a full-time DI.

As with DIs, the benefit of preferred interpreters is that they learn about the deaf professional’s work and work with the deaf professional often enough to have a comfortable and trusting relationship. By working with the deaf professional regularly, both DIs and preferred interpreters learn background information about the deaf professional’s area of expertise, learn the deaf professional’s preferred signs and word choices, and can interpret effectively in specialized settings with the deaf professional.