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First things first, what is learning?
First things first, what is learning?
Learning is a "process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior" (Woolfolk, 2019, p.262)
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
How do we remember things?
How do we remember things?
Aristotle suggests that we remember things when:
They are similar,
They contrast,
They are contiguous (together in sequence; contiguity)
What is the principle of contiguity?
What is the principle of contiguity?
Scientific theories that are centered around learning, memory, and knowledge have a basis of contiguity, meaning an association being made of two events because of repeated pairing.
Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning
Stimuli
Stimuli
Unconditioned (UR)
Causes an automatic/instinctual response
Neutral (NS)
causes no response
paired and becomes associated with US
Conditioned (CS)
The associated NS -- CS
Now causes same behavior
Responses
Responses
Unconditioned (UR)
The instinctual (unlearned) response to the US
Conditioned (CR)
The learned response to the CS
The same Behavior as UR, but in response to a different stimulus.
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
What is Operant Conditioning?
What is Operant Conditioning?
"Instead of focusing on associations between stimuli and responses, operant conditioning focuses on how the effects of consequences on behaviors." (Seifert & Sutton, 2019, chapter 3)
Reinforcement
Reinforcement
- Increases the frequency of a behavior
- Positive reinforcement
- Add something to encourage behavior. (Ex. Getting paid, getting a treat, ect. for doing something.
- Negative reinforcement
- Remove something bad to increase behavior. (Ex. teacher telling students that if they work hard in class the teacher will take away any homework for the night.)
Punishment
Punishment
- Decreases the frequency of a behavior
- Positive punishment
- Add something to discourage a behavior. (Ex. Time-out for acting out)
- Negative punishment
- Remove something good to decrease behavior. (Ex. Take away phone from staying up to late.)
Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement Schedules
- Continuous
Every instance of a behavior is reinforces or punished
- Intermittent
Reinforcements are given on a schedule, with not every case being rewarded.
Fixed ratio- set number of responses
Ex: Every 3 times you pull the lever on the candy machine, you get a piece.
Variable ratio- Random
Ex: you get rewarded when pulling the lever on the candy machine, though it may be on the 5th pull, then 20th, then maybe 7th.
Fixed interval- Reward is based on the amount of time that does by, happens at the same time.
Ex: You get candy out of the machine on the first pull every 2 minutes
Variable interval- Random set time
Ex: you get candy out of the machine after the first time after a certain time. Time is not the same, could be after 1 min, 10, 12, ect.
Applied Behavior Analysis
Applied Behavior Analysis
Applied behavior analysis is a natural scientific approach used for understanding behavior of individuals. This analysis is used to understand why a behavior is being used as well as determining which behaviors need to be changed, then working toward changing them.
An ABAB experimental design (discussed in Chapter 1) is commonly used.
A: Baseline measurements of the behavior are gathered
B: Interventions are applied
A: Interventions are removed to see if the behavior goes back to the baseline level
B: Interventions are reintroduced if needed
For a classroom teacher it might look something like this:
Specify the behavior that needs to be changed and identify the target behavior (the goal).
Observe and note the current behavior making sure to not the frequency and intensity.
Plan an intervention
Keep track of the results following the intervention and adjust accordingly.
In this video it is shown how Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is used in the classroom. These educators explain why they use it, how they use it, and how it benefits their students.
Selecting Reinforcers
Selecting Reinforcers
So, we have our student behavior identified for our Applied Behavior Analysis, but how do we know what reinforcers to select to aid behavioral change?
So, we have our student behavior identified for our Applied Behavior Analysis, but how do we know what reinforcers to select to aid behavioral change?
Premack Principle
Premack Principle
A helpful guide for choosing an effective reinforcer is utilizing the Premack Principle. This principle states that probable behaviors will reinforce less probable behaviors. For example: Jarred prefers playing outside to reading. His grandma tells him if he reads for 15 minutes he can play outside for 20 minutes. Jarred's grandma is using a high probability behavior (playing outside) to reinforce a low probability behavior (reading), illustrating the Premack Principle.
The Premack principle can also be referred to as the "Grandma's rule" or the "When-Then approach" meaning, first you do what I want you to do, then you can do what you want to do.
Observational Learning
Observational Learning
Observational learning is that you're learning by watching others. You will develop behaviors from others that you're watching.
We learn from people from who we identify with:
For example: Age, Race, Gender, Interests, Emotions, and Politics.
Observational learning is a major key in Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory.
Social Cognitive Theory is learning by observing someone. There is no direct reinforcement. There is a bridge between behaviorism and cognitivism.
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