Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land-Use Patterns and Processes

Vocabulary:

Site Factors - climate, landforms, physical factors (ex. Cincinnati is on the northern bank of the Ohio River and is in a valley surrounded by hills with temperate climate with fertile soil)

Situation Factors - connections between sites; relative location often dictates function of a city (ex. availability of building materials and water supply, the quality of soil, the climate of the region, and opportunities for shelters and defense)

Transportation Networks - waterways, railways, highways provide means to get raw materials to factories, goods to markets and workers to jobs

GCPI (Global Power City Index) - evaluates a city's economy, research and development, cultural interaction, livability, environment and accessibility. Basically evaluates a city's power to attract people, capital and businesses.

Infilling - redevelopment of vacant land to improve surrounding area which leads to increased density of the area and changes land use patterns (ex. industrial areas converted to offices, housing or entertainment venues)

Zoning Laws- regulation about what type of development or land use can occur in a specific location (residential, commercial, and industrial)

Infrastructure - basic support systems and physical structures needed to keep a society and economy running smoothly (ex. hospitals, wifi, police/fire stations, transportation, sewage systems)

Mixed Use Development - planned urban development that includes retail, residential, education, recreation, etc in the same area to increase residential density and reduce commute times. This is a hallmark characteristic of smart growth and new urbanism

Qualitative Data - descriptions or characteristics based on people's perceptions or opinions. SUBJECTIVE. (ex. fieldwork, interviews)

Quantitative Data - numbers and statistics or data that can be measured (ex. census)

Redlining - housing discrimination maintained by banks. Started in 1930s when banks refused to grant home loans in certain areas because of ethnicity or race. Therefore, black buyers couldn't obtain loans to improve homes in their areas, which fell into disrepair, poverty and maintained segregation.

Blockbusting - housing discrimination maintained by real estate industry. White families were encouraged to rapidly sell when African American families moved into neighborhoods. Black families charged higher rates to buy houses.

(Redlining and blockbusting was made illegal with Fair Housing Act of 1968. However, residential segregation in cities is still an issue)

Squatter Settlements - unplanned, residential area resulted from rapid urbanization. On undesirable land built with found materials and not connected to city services

Land Tenure - people living in squatter settlements have no legal rights to that land, can be forcibly evicted by government

Inclusionary Zoning - areas where city governments require that developers must include low and medium income housing options in their projects to obtain building permits

Local Food Movements - using city-owned land or abandoned areas to plant community, urban gardens to provide fruit and vegetables to people living in food deserts. Residents can sell food for profit. Creates urban green spaces

Regional Planning - as the world becomes more urbanized and connected, countries/governments work together to solve urban sustainability issues

Advancement of transportation technology has impacted spatial development of cities, leading to the development of suburbs, urban sprawls, etc.

For example, prior to 1850, location of all major North American cities was related chiefly by navigable waterways. Because of railways and highways, cities have developed in the interior of the continent away from waterways.

Borchert's Epochs of American Urbanization

First Stage: The Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790-1830)

At first, cities clustered within 60 miles of Atlantic sea coast
Interior cities grow up on rivers with good access to coast.

Second Stage: The Iron Horse Epoch (1830-1870)

steam-driven railroads allowed for rapid expansion from urban settlements into surrounding regions
rail networks connecting cities
steamboats increased movement of goods and river cities

Third Stage: The Steel Rail Epoch (1870-1920)

Transcontinental railways emerged
industrial centers in Northeast and Midwest continued to grow
River cities declined as rail centers such as Chicago grew
Chicago was meeting point of the railroads from east to west and became central to the economy
Population and industry grows

Fourth Stage: Auto Air-Amenity Epoch (1920-now)

Railroads decline, cars allow cities to spread out
Air travel increased, airport hubs have emerged
Major urban growth in Great Lakes region due to automobile industry and in Sunbelt cities

Rural to Urban Migration

people move to cities for economic and educational opportunities and access to services
In 2017, 55% of world population was in urban areas
By 2050, it is predicted 68% will live in urban areas

Favelas, Squatter Settlements, and Slums

They develop due to rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries

They cannot

get durable housing
get sufficient living space
get easy access to safe water
get adequate sanitation

They are usually vulnerable to natural disasters and built on outskirts of a city on undesirable rates with higher rates of disease, malnutrition, pollution, etc.

A city's economic function impacts urbanization

ex. Houston, Texas functions as center of oil and energy industry

Government Policies

government seek to attract businesses and boost the economy by:

tax incentives/financial incentives
creation of industrial parks
land zoning
transportation infrastructure
low crime
affordable housing
good schools
entertainment and leisure

Forward Capitals

capital cities that are relocated, mostly occurring in former colonies

ex. In Brazil, they relocated the capital from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia

In all cases, old capital cities were congested, had limited infrastructure and desire to build new, planned administrative centers

Megacity

metropolitan areas with more than 10 million people
As of 2018, there are 33 megacities
population growth
rural to urban migration and immigration
ex. Paris, New York, London

Metacity

metropolitan areas with more than 20 million people
unplanned city growth - not enough adequate services, emergence of vast slums
ex. Shanghai, Delhi, Tokyo

Urban Sprawl & Decentralization

Urban sprawl is the uncontrolled expansion of urban areas
greater access to cars, roads, and commercial developments have expanded outward from city core
oftentimes unplanned which results in poor infrastructure and connections over time
common in US metropolitan areas
led to new land-use forms such as suburbs, edge cities, boomburbs, and exurbs

Suburbanization

process of people moving, usually from cities to residential areas on the outskirts of cities
form communities that are connected to the city for jobs and services but are decentralized
less densely populated and less ethnically diverse than cities
developed due to advancements in transportation that allowed workers to live further than walking distance from their jobs
After WWII in the US, economic advancements, G1 Bill (provided veterans with low down payment terms and long-term mortgages), increased production and ownership of cars, Federal Aid Highway Act led to an increase in suburbs
Neighborhoods developed with prefabricated housing that could be built quickly

Edge Cities

community located on outskirts of larger city with commercial centers, office space, retail complexes, and amenities typically found in an urban center
not usually residential - mostly economic
fairly new development in the past 30 yrs

Boomburbs

suburb that has rapidly grown into a large and sprawling city with more than 100,000 residents
typically made up of planned communities that merged together
feels "suburban" but has more of an urban population

Exurbs

essentially suburb of a suburb
community on outside edge of traditional suburbs
function like a suburb, but more rural and less connected to central city core
low density residential communities
wealthy estates or small rural towns
little diversity

Negative Effects of Suburbanization and Urban Sprawl

lack of identity or culture
dependence on cars - pollution and traffic congestion
economically exclusive - often people who remain in city are in poverty and do not pay enough taxes to sustain urban core which leads to urban decay and economic decline in cities
Government investment in suburban growth results in lack of investment in inner cities

World Cities

Large cities that exert global economic, cultural, and political influence and make up a network of economic and social information flows

They are globalizing cities at the top of the world's urban hierarchy and are connected with other globalizing cities

They are media hubs, financial centers (with influential stock exchanges, banks and corporate headquarters), and international organizations

Home to fashion, design and cultural industries

3 Cities with the Greatest Global Dominance

London
New York (HQ of UN and Wall Street)
Tokyo

Connections Between World Cities

Means of globalization and connections
Diffusion of new ideas, goods and resources

Manufacturing and trading
Multinational Corporations
Transportation
Banking
Communication
Pop Culture and Tourism (ex. Olympics, Times Square, Fashion Week)

Urban Hierarchy

Rank-Size Rule

Model that illustrates relationship between population distribution in cities that are interconnected in urban hierarchy

Typically indicates somewhat even development

Population of 2nd largest city is 1/2 pop. of largest city

Population of 3rd largest city is 1/3 pop. of largest city

Population of 4th largest city is 1/4 pop. of largest city

So on and so forth...

Primate City

Model that illustrates disproportionate population distribution within a state

One particular city is extremely large in population and economic, cultural, political influence

Indicates uneven development within a state

ex. Paris - 9.6 million

Merseilles - 1.3 million

The Gravity Model

Model that illustrates the spatial relationship and amount of interaction between locations of different sizes - flows of people, trade, traffic, communication, etc

Considers distance between two locations and their relative sizes

Larger cities interact more with large cities and small cities are drawn to influence and impact of large cities

Christaller's Central Place Theory

Model that illustartes hierarachical spatial patterns/order of cities and settlements

Based on economic functions - "central place" is a large city that provides the most goods and services for surrounding area

Smaller settlements organize around "central place"

Range

distance that someone is willing to travel for a good or service

Threshold

# of people needed to support a certain good or service

High-Order Goods and Services

expensive, unique, large threshold and range.

Found in higher order places - major cities

ex. sports arena, specialty doctors

Low- Order Goods and Services

inexpensive, common every day needs, smaller threshold and range

Found in lower-order places - towns, villages, hamlets

ex. grocery stores, gas stations, hair salons

Bid Rent Theory

Closest to city center are businesses and stores. Manufacturing is farther for space and access to transportation. Residences are furthest. States that land/rental costs are higher in and around a city's central business district due to demand.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

Based on development of Chicago in 1920s

Ring #1: CBD (Central Business District)

Ring #2: Factories and industry with mix of low income apartments

Ring #3: Working Class Housing with high pop density and poor living conditions

Ring #4&5: Commuter Zone (where people commute to work) and middle/high class housing

Limitation of this model: cities have geographic formations and adapt to things around them

Hoyt Sector Model

Sectors develop along transportation routes

Low income housing develops surrounding industry and major transportation routes

Middle/High income develops further from city center so as not to experience pollution, heavy traffic

Galactic City Model

Most modern (decentralization & suburbanization)
As suburbanization and cars increased, this model reflects what happened
This model includes edge cities like mini CBD's - shopping, entertainment, offices (typically located along transportation routes)
Based on the city of Detroit
"It accounts for the fact that the classic CBD is no longer dominant, but is instead upstaged by several specialized suburban areas. In the galactic city model, the urban area is decentralized and more focus is placed on edge cities" - (this info is from - https://www.albert.io/blog/galactic-city-model-ap-human-geography-crash-course/)

Harris & Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model

Cities develop around focal points
Site and situational factors influence land-use patterns
CBD still exists, but there are other, smaller business districts
Manufacturing and industry located near transportation routes for easier shipping
Similar businesses located near each other to take advantage of labor pools, suppliers and communication
Middle/high income housing develops further from city center and industry to avoid pollution, etc.

Latin American City Model

"This model shows that most cities have a central business district, one dominant elite residential sector, and a commercial spine. These areas are then surrounded by a series of concentric zones that decrease in residential quality farther from the CBD."

(Information from and further reading in - https://www.thoughtco.com/latin-american-city-structure-1435755)

African City Model

"The African City Model is a simplified and abstracted diagram that focuses on three distinct and adjoining types of central business districts (CBDs) and the ethnic and segregated nature of residential zones in cities within former European colonies in Africa."

(Information from and further reading in-https://www.studysmarter.us/explanations/human-geography/urban-geography/african-city-model/#:~:text=The%20African%20City%20Model%20is%20a%20generalized%20diagram%20of%20an,was%20first%20published%20in%201977.)

Southeast Asian City Model

"As the model shows, no CBD is visible. However, several components of the CBD are present in separate areas in the city. Basically the components of the CBD are clustered around the port zone. The Western commercial zone for western businesses. The alien commercial zone is dominated by the Chinese who have migrated to other parts of Asia and live in the same buildings as their businesses. These are Chinese merchants. And then there is the mixed land-use zone that has miscellaneous activities including light industry. There is also a separate area known as the government zone near the center of the model. Also note the mixed- land use zone contains various economic uses which can include informal business.-The focal point is the Port Zone reflecting a city oriented around exporting."

(Information from and further reading in-https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjtyubo6vT-AhWgKEQIHbSBCbEQFnoECDwQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Ffl01000126.schoolwires.net%2Fcms%2Flib%2FFL01000126%2FCentricity%2FDomain%2F247%2FAPHG%2520Models%2520List%2520Review.doc&usg=AOvVaw3Z4GDtjs0_yhGb6W60mpIF)

Ways to Measure Urban Density

(info from: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-hug/unit-6/density-land-use/study-guide/bSPYlL5bBF2XQv4I6E4E)

Gross Density

calculated by dividing the total number of people living in an area, regardless of land use by the total land area

Net Density

calculated by dividing the total population by the total land area minus the non-residential land. Takes land use into account.

Floor Area Ratio

calculated by dividing the total floor area of all buildings in an area by the total land area

Site Density

calculated by dividing the number of dwelling units by the total land area

The location and quality of infrastructure directly affects patterns of economic and social development.

High Quality Infrastructure

leads to more economically and socially developed areas
Infrastructure is funded by tax, so more economically prosperous areas have better infrastructure
Found in capitals, high income areas of cities, and core countries
Strong network of hospitals - overall healthier population and less unemployment because of available jobs in healthcare
Access to transportation routes - reliable ways to transport goods, more money and less unemployment, employees can easily travel to work to make and spend money that will stimulate the economy

Low Quality Infrastructure

leads to less economically and socially developed areas
Infrastructure may be informally developed by the people due to lack of assistance from the government
Found in favalas/squatter settlements, low income neighborhoods, and periphery and semi-periphery countries
Lack of access to hospitals - overall less healthy population and less high paying jobs
Lack of access to transportation routes - employees unable to easily travel to work leading to less productivity, more money spent on transportation rather than stimulating economy

Sustainable Cities

Focus #1: Reducing the city's impact on the environment

Focus #2: Increasing livability and quality of life with opportunity and stability such as good education systems, great social supports, and high employment

Urban sustainability is achieved through:

Smart Growth

legislations and regulations to limit suburban growth in order to preserve farmland

Walkability - able to walk to store, school, library, etc, as well as provides urban residents with safe, convenient, and efficient ways to walk or bike to important places

New Urbanism

walkable blocks and streets, housing and shopping in close proximity, and accessible public spaces
Transportation Oriented Development - access to public transportation which decreases air pollution, reduces traffic congestion and allows valuable urban land to be used for mixed use development instead of parking lots

Smart Growth and New Urbanism attempt to reduce urban sprawl and develop urban spaces. They encourage mixed use development to increase use of already existing urban structures and develop walkable and livable cities. This helps to maintain a sense of place and increase residential housing density.

Greenbelts

areas of "green" land (parks, agricultural land, forests) around an urban area intended to limit urban sprawl
AKA urban growth boundary
helps limit pollution and protects local wildlife habitats
Historically used in Great Britain

Slow-Growth Cities

slowing a city's growth to limit the problems associated with growth such as overpopulation, slums, squatter settlements, etc.
Can be achieved by implementing greenbelts or by using zoning policies to restrict development of land
Uses urban growth boundaries to place a geographic limit on development surrounding a city

Pros and Cons of Urban Sustainablity

Pros

reduction of urban sprawl
walkability
public transportation
improved and diverse housing options
improved livability
reduction in negative environmental impact

Cons

increased housing costs - housing is not affordable for low income residents which causes de facto segregation for poor colored families to move out because they can't afford to live in the city
potential loss of historical characteristics or sense of place

Social Challenges of Urbanization

Inadequate job skills
Housing discrimination
Poverty
Homelessness
Drugs
Crime - when people are economically/racially segregated in urban areas, crime increases
Inadequate services
Municipal finances
Disamenity zones - locations that are typically physically unsafe with dangerous terrain that are not connected to city services
Environmental Injustice - communities of color and poverty are more likely to be exposed to environmental burdens such as air and water pollution

Urban Renewal

modernizing abandoned/industrial urban areas funded by federal government grants
After demolition, new housing and infrastructure was built in an effort to improve urban living conditions

Gentrification

process by which higher income residents or professional developers buy buildings in abandoned/blighted/industrial areas for a low cost and renovate, restore or rebuild property

Pros and Cons of Urban Renewal and Gentrification

Pros

improved housing
attract new businesses
infrastructure improvements
rehabilitation of historic landscapes
decreased crime rates

Cons

causes displacement of typically elderly, minority, poor people - homelessness
demolition/alteration of historic buildings - sense of placelessness

Suburban Sprawl and Ecological Footprint

with greater access to automobile and roads, commercial and residential development have expanded outward from the city core
this causes higher levels of traffic and air pollution
to combat this, it is effective to use greenbelts or alternative transportation such as public subways or electric cars

Challenges of Urban Sustainability

Sanitation

sanitation issues prevent cities from having access to healthy water which results in deaths and childhood stunting

Climate Change/Energy Consumption

urban areas consume massive amounts of energy (mostly fossil fuels) which create greenhouse gases and results in rising sea levels, flooding, hot waves, wildfires, and droughts

Air/Water Quality

air pollution caused by industry, power plants and vehicles in urban areas that stays in the air and is inhaled by humans
7.8% of global deaths is caused by air pollution
water pollution caused by poor sewage and sanitation systems, poor infrastructure, etc
results in unhealthy drinking water and is responsible for 1.2 million deaths per year

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