Unit 5: Agriculture and Rural Land-Use Patterns and Processes

Vocabulary:

Climate - long term weather pattern in a region; agricultural output is determined by the bioclimatic zones

Space/Landforms - physical features such as mountain ranges or deserts; determines if the land is arable or not

Soil/Nutrients - the quality of the soil and if it has the nutrients fit for agriculture

Hearth - a place of origin for crops, cultural traits, etc

Enclosure Movement - series of laws enacted by the British government that enabled landowners to purchase land and enclose land for their own use that previously been communal land used by peasant farmers

Subsistence - crops and livestock grown to feed farmers, their families and their communities

Commercial - crops and livestock grown to be sold on the global market

Monocropping (Monoculture) - cultivation of one or two crops that are rotated seasonally that is usually done by plantations or large companies (allows for higher yields and specialization, but strips nutrients from the soil, decreases biodiversity, etc)

Agribusiness - commercial agriculture characterized by integration of different steps in the food-processing industry usually through ownership by large corporations (rise of agribusinesses has replaced many family farms)

Economies of Scale - large scale farming that is cost effective due to lower bulk prices for farming supplies and technologies. Has modern equipment, fertilizers, pesticides, etc for higher yields. They can afford bigger purchases due to their bigger farms.

Technological Advances in Agriculture - increases the cost of operating farms but also increases efficiency of agriculture by increasing the carrying capacity of land for higher yields

Commodity Chains - complex networks that connects places of production with distribution to customers

Bid-Rent Theory - land is more desirable and expensive the closer it is to the market so farms nearer to the market have to be intensive and land further from the market have to be extensive to earn profit

Food Desert - area where access to affordable, healthy food is limited

However, through environmental possibilism (remember?), we can "change" the climate through greenhouses, "change" landforms through terrace farming or clearing trees, "change" soil/nutrients with fertilizers or slash and burn agriculture, and "change" precipitation through irrigation or draining wetlands, etc.

Intensive VS Extensive Agriculture

Agricultural Practices

Shifting Cultivation

Farmers move from one field to another using slash and burn agriculture. When soil loses fertility, they repeat the cycle.
corn, rice, millet, sorghum
Extensive
Subsistence

Nomadic Herding/Pastoral Nomadism

nomads move herds to different pastures and trade meat, milk and hides. Rely on animals for survival, not profit
cattle, camels, reindeer, goats, yak, sheep, horses
extensive
subsistence

Livestock Ranching

commercial grazing of livestock; eventually sent to the slaughter for meat
cattle, goats, sheep
extensive
commercial

Commercial Grain Farming

crops grown primarily for human consumption; farmers sell their output to manufacturers of food products
wheat
extensive
commercial

Market Gardening

some fruits/veggies sold fresh to customers, some sold to large processors for canning or freezing
fresh fruits/vegetables
intensive - reliant on migrant laborers
commercial

Plantation Agriculture

specializes in one crop that is transported for sale on the global market
commodity & speciality crops - cacao, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, bananas, tobacco, tea, coconuts, cotton
intensive
commercial

Mixed Crop & Livestock

most money comes from the sale of livestock (crops used to feed animals)
corn, grains, soybeans grown to feed cattle and pigs
intensive - reliant on high amounts of capital and labor
commercial

Mediterranean

orchards are common, crops produced for global market
grapes, olives, dates, figs
intensive
commercial

Dairy Farming

dairy farmers typically sell milk to wholesalers who distribute to retailers who sell to customers
milk
intensive
commercial

Survey Methods

Metes and Bounds

Great Britain to North America
Utilization of landmarks and physical features to establish boundary lines
irregular shaped plots of land

Long Lot

France & Spain to North America
long strips of land that start at a river, lake , road, etc, with the intention of providing all landowners with equal access to the resources or transportation

Township & Range

pioneered by Thomas Jefferson
rectangle and grid system
Each township is 6x6 miles
easy to keep track of land sales and purchases
uniform survey method

Settlement Patterns

Clustered

rural residents live in groups of homes close together
farmland and pasture surrond settlements
community shares resources
Metes and Bounds

Dispersed

settlements are isolated and dispersed
residents may have more individual values
township and range

Linear

settlement is organized along a line such as a transportation route or physical feature like a river or coast
long lot

Early Hearths

(info from: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-hug/unit-5/agricultural-origins-diffusions/study-guide/0w8PoDg8fpwGgA1KPnjV)

Mesopotamia

Bread grains, grapes, apples, olives, and a variety of others, cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats

hearth of First Neolithic Revolution

Nile River Valley

Lentils, beans, flax, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs

Indus River Valley

wheat, barely, peas, lentils, mustard, cotton, sheep, goats, chickens, pigs, cattle, dogs

East Asia

rice and millet

Southwest Asia

Barley, wheat, lentil, olives, pigs, goats, cattle, sheep, dog

Central America

beans, cotton, potatoes, maize

Sub-Saharan Africa

sorghum, yams

Diffusion of Plants and Animals

First Neolithic Revolution

transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture
diffused globally through contagious diffusion
first spread to central Asia then eventually to Europe

Columbian Exchange

variety of plants, animals, diseases, ideas were exchanged between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia

Second Agricultural Revolution

Began 1750 in Great Britain

Diffused to the rest of Europe and the US

Caused by the Industrial Revolution which invented the cotton gin, seed drill, etc that helped get higher yields and decreased the number of farmers because of more technology

Caused by the Enclosure Movement which led to the emergence of commercial agriculture, fewer and larger farms, as well as urbanization

Characteristics of the Second Agricultural Revolution are:

Crop Rotation

rotating crops each year to sustain fertility of the soil
increased crop yields
more experimentation with fertilization techniques

Transportation Improvements and New Markets

trains and steamboats allowed farmers to ship products further and at lower cost

Green Revolution

1950s - 1960s
Spread from MDC's (More developed countries) to developing countries in Latin America and Asia
Caused by the need to support massive population growth in developing regions and Norman Borlaug who improved agricultural and biotechnological techniques to feed growing pop.
Characteristics include: 1. higher-yielding, disease resistant, faster growing varieties of grains (Hybrids and genetically modified organisms) 2. double cropping (growing more than one crop in a year) 3. increased use of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation techniques and machinery in developing countries

Positive and Negative Results of the Green Revolution

Positive

high yields on the same amount of land
increased yields leads to surplus crops which can sustain population growth
exporting surplus crops can also generate more wealth that can be used to get better farming technology to make more crops
self sufficiency in developing regions
lower food prices

Negative

environmental consequences - mass use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides - runoff in local water systems
intensive double cropping and aggressive irrigation leads to soil erosion and salinization
more machinery - more fossil fuels - more air, sound, water pollution
loss of biodiversity
development of new technologies excluded women from having decision making power or being in charge of farming labor
poor success in Africa

Limitations:

multiple market centers across the world today
food preservation techniques
improved transportation (trains, ships, roads, planes)
government policies about land use or to encourage growth of a particular crop
wood is no longer a major source of heating, cooking, etc
non-isotropic planes in real life
regions of particular climates or soil types for specialty farming are missing

Von Thunen Model

Assumptions:

Isotropic plane - all land is flat and physical environment is same everywhere
no barriers to transportation
farmers use oxcarts to transport goods to markets

Market/Urban Center

one market located in isolated, self-sufficient state without external influences
assumed commercial agricultural system in which farmers maximize their profits
assumed one single destination for harvest

Dairy Farming/Market Gardening

Because of milk and produce's perishability, they must be located near the market
they are difficult to transport so they must be transported quickly
Intensive farming due to high value of land near market

Forests

difficult/expensive to transport
not perishable
firewood was essential in the 1800s

Grains & Cereal Crops

less perishable
easier to transport (not fragile or heavy)
extensive

Livestock Ranching

not perishable while alive
very low transportation costs - cows walked to market
extensive

Food is a major part of the global supply chain

Globalization has created interdependence between countries. Larger countries export food products to smaller, less developed countries. Countries with climactic advantages export luxury crops to wealthy countries. Southern hemisphere provides for the Northern hemisphere during winter, vice versa.

Agribusinesses in developed countries often control land and crop production in DC's (developing countries). Fair trade movements have tried to promote equality for producers of crops in DC's.

Relationships between former colonies and their mother countries make trade easier but may also make them dependent.

Poor infrastructure in DC's makes it hard to get food to the market. Farmers in developed countries have good transportation to ship food.

Consequences of Agricultural Practices

Shifted Cultivation

practiced in periphery and semi-periphery countries
farmers cultivate the land until it becomes infertile
soil degredation if land does not have adequate fallow period

Slash & Burn Agriculture

cutting and burning forest to create fields for cultivation
ash from burning provides nutrients and fertilizes crops
results in deforestation and soil erosion

Terrace Farming

typically practiced by subsistence farmers in mountainous areas
permanently alters the landscape by building steps into the side of hills and mountains
allows land to be cultivated that would otherwise be unarable

Irrigation

used to supplement water by bringing water to fields through canals, etc
impacts cultural landscape and results in depletion of water resources

Pastoral Nomadism

herders move animals seasonally to graze
results in soil erosion and desertification because of droughts and overgrazing

Draining Wetlands

swamps, marshes, bogs drained to become arable farmland
Used a lot in the Netherlands
results in loss of biodiversity and habitats for fish and mammals
increased storm and flood damage

Pollution

increase in demand for meat causes increased animal waste which contaminate water and soil
pesticides and herbicides cause chemicals to be in the air, soil, water
fossil fuels increase greenhouse gases

Soil Salinization

process by which salts build up in soil when water evaporates more rapidly than it is replenished
salt strips nutrients from the soil
rapidly increasing as more land comes under irrigation and wetlands are drained

Deforestation

rising demand for logging industry
slash and burn subsistence farming
cattle grazing
commercial agriculture
results in greenhouse gas emissions, soil erosions, loss of biodiversity

Challenges to Contemporary Agriculture

advances in biotechnology, GMO's, and aquaculture have caused concerns about water usage, reduction in biodiversity, etc.
irrigation causes problems by causing soil salinization and depleting water sources
poor agricultural practices damage soil
chemical fertilizers and pesticides pollute water and soils
food often spoils before it reaches market because of lack of proper storage, etc
adverse weather can destroy crops
farmland is lost due to urban growth

Alternative Solutions to These Challenges

Urban Farming

helps alleviate food insecurity
absorbs excess labor in cities
can be source of health problems from dirty water
supplements food purchases
brings fresh food to poor residents

Community Supported Agriculture

farmers sell "shares" to local consumers who contract to buy the products throughout the year
fewer fossil fuels for production/transportation
organic and humane ways to raise plants/animals
CSA producers make more profit

Organic

consumers want food that is healthier and safer for the environment
grow crops without chemicals
healthier for environment
raised without growth hormones or antibiotics so its safer to eat

Fair Trade

bypasses traditional multinational corporations and contracts
producers in developing countries get better prices and keep more profits
treat workers better, pay them more
more sustainable practices

Shifts in Diet

consumers in developed countries try to eat healthier diets
demand for red meat is down; demand for chicken and turkey is up
May choose vegan, vegetarian diets instead of traditional meat diets

Women in agriculture started as gatherers, but some are now managing agribusinesses

Women are definitely still facing gender inequality in agriculture in less developed countries, but there has been a steadily growing increase in gender equality over the years.

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