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problem condoned and supported by the customs and traditions of a particular society. There is a great deal of discussion about whether gender is the sole factor determining the pattern of abusive control in intimate relationships or one of a cluster of significant variables (Miller, 1994; Renzetti, 1994). However, gender is clearly a salient issue when considering the following factors: the prevalence of male-tofemale domestic violence, injuries to female victims, the use of physical force as part of a pattern of dominance, and specific responses of victims and perpetrators to domestic violence. As previously noted, in the majority of reported domestic violence cases, the perpetrators are men and the victims are women (Douglas, 1991). In heterosexual relationships, some women sometimes use physical force, but their use of physical force is not always at the same rate or severity as men’s (Dobash & Dobash, 1979, 1992; Gelles, 1994). Studies indicate that while both men and women sometimes use similar physical behaviors, the physical effects of male violence are far more serious than female aggression as measured by the frequency and severity of injuries (Berk, Berk, Loseke, & Rauma, 1983). Furthermore, the impact of the physical aggression varies according to the gender of the victim — female victims of male intimate violence experience more negative consequences than male victims of female intimate violence (Vivian & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1994). Furthermore, the purpose of women’s use of physical force appears to be different than men’s. In studies of heterosexual relationships, women use physical force against partners for self-defense, whereas men use force for power and control (Saunders, 1986; Hamberger & Potente, 1994; Jacobson, et al., 1994). In homicide studies, women are shown to be more likely than men to have committed homicide in self-defense. In contrast, male perpetrators of homicide are more likely to stalk victims, kill victims and/or other family members, and/or commit suicide than female perpetrators of homicide (Wilson & Daly, 1992). The research on battered women who kill also suggests that women’s use of physical force is related to protecting themselves from the severe violence of male perpetrators (Gillespie, 1989). Browne (1987) found no distinguishing characteristics between battered women who kill and those who do not. The only differences found in comparing these two groups of battered women were found in their batterers (i.e., the men who were killed had been more violent against the victims as well as the children than those who were not killed). Obviously, in same-sex domestic violence the gender pattern is different. However, the reality of same-sex domestic violence does not discount the gender issues of domestic violence. Male violence against women in heterosexual intimate relationships is a paradigm for intimate UNDERSTANDING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 25 violence in gay and lesbian relationships: one partner is intimidating and controlling the other through the use of or threat of physical violence. Even though the gender pattern is not the same for same-sex relationships as for heterosexual, there are gender issues related to how gay and lesbian victims and perpetrators relate to the abuse and to how others view same-sex domestic violence. For example, because of their gender socialization, gay victims may have difficulty identifying as victims because it is seen as “unmanly” (Letellier, 1994); the gay community may discount the violence because “that is the way men are” while the lesbian community may deny lesbian domestic violence because “women are not like that;” and the homophobic mainstream dismisses the domestic violence as just part of being gay or lesbian. While same-sex domestic violence is slowly receiving attention in the literature (e.g., Lobel, 1986; Renzetti, 1992; Letellier, 1994), there have been no studies comparing heterosexual, lesbian and gay domestic violence. Consequently, additional questions regarding gender and domestic violence still need to be answered. C. Domestic Violence and Cultural Issues Domestic violence occurs in all cultural/ethnic groups both outside and within the United States. Cross-cultural studies involving